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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




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FIVE BLACK ARTS. 

A POPULAR ACCOUNT 



fistorn, f rox^sses of Haimfactun, an^ Mb^b 



PRINTING, OAS-LIGHT, 

POTTERY, GLASS, 

IRON. "^^-^- 



I -^ ' , , WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS. 



CONDENSED FEOM THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BEITANNICA. 
/ COLUMBUS: 

FOLLETT, FOSTER AND COMPANY. 
1861. 



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PREFACE. 



The Encyclopaedia Britanniga* is standard author- 
ity on Science, and on Arts and Manufactures. It 
is an expensive work, and its circulation in America 
is confined to Libraries in prominent cities. It was, 
therefore, deemed advisable, by the Publishers of this 
Book, to put in form convenient for the humblest 
private Library, the information it furnishes on some 
of the Arts in which everybody is interested. 

Printing, Pottery and Porcelain, Gas-Light, Glass, 
and Iron were selected by the Editor, because in 
their uses they are familiar to all the people, but in 
their history, and in the process of their manufacture, 
are mysteries to a large majority. 

The articles, herewith published, are agreeable 
in style ; they have been condensed only in parts 
pertaining especially to English processes of man- 



* The EncyclopaBdia Britannica, or Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and 
General Literature. Eighth Edition, with extensive improvements and 
additions, and numerous engravings. Adam and Charles Black, Edin- 
burgh, Scotland. Little, Brown & Co., Boston, Massachusetts. 22 vols. 
quarto. 18G1. 



iv Preface. 

ufacture ; and the Editor is confident that they will 
prove both instructive and interesting to all who 
have not made the Arts represented a particular 
study, and will be serviceable to many who practi- 
cally pursue those Arts. 

W. T. C. 
Columbus, Ohio, January, 1861. 



CONTENTS. 



Page 
HISTORY AND PROCESS OF PRINTING. 

History 4 

Practical Printing 75 

Stereotyping 96 

polytypage 106 

Printing for the Blind Ill 

Other Processes 114 

Nature Printing 115 

Printing in Colors 118 

Bank-Note Printing 124 

Printing Machines 126 

POTTERY AND PORCELAIN. 

Historical Sketch 140 

The Materlils 166 

The Manufacture 171 

Ornamentation 179 

GLASS : ITS HISTORY AND MANUFACTURE. 

History 189 

Crown Glass 202 

Sheet 210 

Plate 214 

Stained or Painted 219 

Glazing of Windows 228 

The Cutting Diamond 231 

Flint Glass or Crystal 234 

Bottle 241 



vi Contents. 

HISTORY AND PROCESSES OF MAKING GAS-LIGHT. 

History 247 

Aeeangement op Appaeatds 253 

Retorts for Coal 255 

Condensing, Main and Dip Pipes 264 

Tab Apparatus 268 

Apparatus for separating 266 

Gasometer 271 

Main and Seryice Pipes 275 

Governor or Regulator 278 

Gas Meter 280 

Burners 284 

Oil, Water, and Resin Gas 294 

Determining Illuminating Power 296 

Hints for Improving Coal Gas 303 

Deterioration of " " 308 

Economy op " " 309 

Secondary Products 311 

IRON: HISTORY OP ITS MANUFACTURE, WITH AN AC- 
COUNT OF ITS PROPERTIES AND USES. 

History of Iron Manufacture 317 

The Ores 323 

The Fuel 331 

Manufacture 336 

Conversion of Crude Iron into Malleable 349 

Machinery of Manufacture 363 

The Forge 370 

Strength and other Properties of Cast-Iron 374 

Malleable 381 

Statistics op the Iron Trade 391 



Contents. vii 



ILLUSTRATIONS: 



Index to Descriptive Pages. 

Page 
PRINTING. 

Fig. 1 65 

2 66 

3, 4 68 

5 69 

6,7 79 

GLASS. 

Fig. l...r. 208 

2, 3, 4, 5, 6 209 

7.8....; 210 

GAS-LIGHT. 

Fig. 1 278 

2, 3 280 

4, 5 282 

6 284 

7, 8, 9, 10 287 

11 292 

12 296 

13 298 

IRON. 

Fig. 1 336 

2,3 337 

4 343 

5 363 

6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 364 

13 365 

14, 15, 16, 17 368 

18,19 370 



HISTORY 



PROCESS OF PRINTING 



BY THOMAS C. HANSARD. 



LETTER-PRESS PRINTING. 



Printing is the art of taking one or more impressions 
from the same surface, whereby characters and signs, cast, 
engraven, drawn, or otherwise represented thereon, are 
caused to present their reverse images upon paper, vellum, 
parchment, linen, and other substances, in pigments of va- 
rious hues, or by means of chemical combinations, of which 
the components are contained on or within the surface from 
which the impression is taken, or in the fabric of the thing 
impressed, or in both. 

The most important branch of printing is what is called 
letter-press printing, or the method of taking impressions 
from letters and other characters cast in relief upon separate 
pieces of metal, and therefore capable of indefinite combi- 
nation. The impressions are taken either by superficial or 
surface pressure, as in the common printing-press, or by 
lineal or cylindrical pressure, as in the printing machine 
and roller-press. The pigments or inks, of whatever color, 
are always upon the surface of the types ; and the sub- 
stances which may be impressed are various. Wood-cuts 
and other engravings in relief are also printed in this 
manner. 

Copperplate printing is the reverse of the above, the char- 
acters being engraven in intaglio, and the pigments or inks 
contained within the lines of the engravings, and not upon 
the surface of the plate. The impressions are always taken 
by lineal or cylindrical pressure ; the substances to be im- 
pressed, however, are more limited. All engravings in in- 
taglio, on whatever material, are printed by this method. 

Lithographic printing is from the surface of certain porous 
stones, upon which characters are drawn with peculiar pen- 
cils. The surface of the stone being wetted, the chemical 



4 Five Black Arts. 

coloring compound adheres to the drawing, and refuses the 
stone. The impression is taken by a scraper that rubs vio- 
lently upon the back of the substances impressed, which are 
fewer still in number. Drawings upon zinc and other mate- 
rials are printed by this process. 

Cotton and calico printing is from surfaces engraven 
either in relief or intaglio. The chemical compounds are 
either on or within the characters, as pigments or chemical 
colors, or in the fabric to be printed, but mostly in both ; the 
combination of chemical substances producing color when the 
fabric and the engraving are brought into contact. The im- 
pression is either superficial or lineal, but mostly lineal. 

HISTORY. 

The origin and history of an art which has exercised such 
an influence on civilization, and contributed in so essential 
a manner to the cultivation of the human intellect, have 
naturally become a matter of inquiry amongst the learned, 
and have almost as naturally been the source of earnest con- 
troversy; for there are few effects of human invention or 
industry that have been originated and brought to perfection 
at a particular epoch, without any previous train of thought 
or circumstance, so that the precise day or year could be 
noted in which the perfect Minerva started forth in full ma- 
turity. On the contrary, it is difficult to say at what period 
of time the germ of the art of printing did not exist. So 
obvious is the reproduction of similar appearances from an 
impression of the same surface, that the most early of man- 
kind must have noted it ; and even the impression of a foot 
or a hand must have suggested a simple and intelligible mode 
of conveying an idea, before the invention of any kind of 
writing. Accordingly, these and similar signs are found to 
compose the chief characters of the earliest writing. 

Observing this general law of the gradual perfectibility 
of human arts, we must look back to the most remote ages 
for the first steps of that of printing. We shall accordingly 
find certain evidence, that more than two thousand years 
before our era, a method of multiplying impressions, rude 
and imperfect in the extreme, was certainly practiced. 

The earliest practice which can with propriety be called 
printing was probably that of impressing seals upon a plastic 



Printing — History. 5 

material, the purpose being confined to the single effect of 
each single impression. The next step of which the dili- 
gence of inquirers has taken note, and which is a step thus 
much further in advance that its object was the multiplica- 
tion of impressions for the purpose of diffusing information 
— the practice, namely, of impressing symbols or characters 
upon clay and other materials used in forming bricks, cylin- 
ders, and the walls of edifices — was an art confined, so far 
as our knowledge extends, to the ancient centers of civiliza- 
tion in Egypt and Asia. Some examples of this art found 
their way many years ago into the great public museums 
and chief private collections of Europe, where they were 
objects of curiosity and wonder. In the present day, the 
researches of Sir Gardner Wilkinson and others into the 
antiquities of Egypt, and of Sir Henry Rawlinson and Mr. 
Layard into the ruins of the buried cities of Asia, have pro- 
duced a vast quantity of materials illustrative of the subject. 
The relative antiquity of the Egyptian and Asiatic remains 
belong to another inquiry. Among the Egyptian remains 
are numerous bricks of clay stamped with the nomen and 
agnomen of the king inclosed within a cartouche. The mode 
by which the impressions were made is manifest. The prints 
are very irregularly placed, without any reference to paral- 
lelism with the sides, and are always more or less awry, 
according to the manual skill and care of the workman : the 
surface of the bricks around the depression is forced up con- 
siderably, which is exactly the effect of pressing the hand or 
any substance into a plastic material ; and the edges, both of 
the general depressions and of the figures, present the effect 
of the stamps having been drawn up whilst the clay was yet 
damp and adherent to it. It is therefore evident that the 
inscriptions were stamped in after the clay had been turned 
out of the mould, and were not produced by any part of it. 
To make the evidence complete, there have been found many 
stamps of wood, having on the face cartouches and inscrip- 
tions precisely resembling in kind those which must have been 
used for stamping the bricks. On some of these stamps and 
impressions there are slight traces of color. There have 
also been found in Egypt numerous figures of baked clay 
and porcelain on which hieroglyphic characters have appa- 
rently been impressed singly, side by side, by stamps ; and 



6 Five Black Arts. 

on the walls of their ruder buildings hieroglyphic and picto- 
rial figures of considerable size have been produced by the 
same means and afterward colored. Of articles of domestic 
use are certain instruments called tesserce, having incised 
characters, the use of which has certainly been to stamp 
plastic materials ; and there have also been found leather 
belts and ornaments on which figures have been impressed 
singly by tools. 

The ruins of the cities of Asia supply us with numerous 
examples similar to those of Egypt, but carrying the art 
farther. The ruins contain countless bricks, on which are 
impressed inscriptions similar to those of Egypt, but much 
more elaborate. Mr. Layard says, that the characters on 
the Assyrian bricks were made separately : some letters may 
have been impressed singly with a stamp, but from the care- 
less and irregular way in which they are formed and grouped 
together, it is more probable that they were all cut by an 
instrument and by hand ; but that the inscriptions on the 
Babylonian bricks are generally inclosed in a small square, 
and are formed with considerable care and nicety ; they ap- 
pear to have been impressed with a stamp, on which the 
entire inscription, and not isolated letters, was cut in relief. 
From this circumstance, Mr. Layard ascribes greater an- 
tiquity to the Assyrian remains. 

Mr. Layard's researches have further made evident that 
the ancient inhabitants of these cities practiced a more ad- 
vanced and elegant usage of imprinting in their domestic 
and ornamental arts. He has discovered great quantities of 
tiles and tablets covered with incised or incussed characters, 
on which was impressed, while the clay was yet wet, a line 
of characters or symbols — apparently an authorization or 
verification — produced by the rolling of engraved cylinders ; 
and other tiles, of which he says, " The most common mode 
of keeping records in Assyria and Babylon was on prepared 
bricks, tiles, or cylinders of clay, baked after the inscription 
was impressed;^' — this impression must not be mistaken for 
the application of a stamp ; it is effected by the use of an 
instrument in the hand, by which various combinations of the 
same form were indented into the moist clay, and therefore 
partakes more of the character of impressed writing: in 
many of the specimens thus impressed, the writing (or text) 



Printing — History. 7 

does not cover the entire tile or tablet, and the blank is filled 
up by repeated impressions of the same seal ; and in some 
cases the entire text has been surrounded by an impression 
from a cylinder rolled round, forming an endless scroll, by 
which any addition to the text is rendered impossible. Great 
numbers of cylinders have been found. They are elaborately 
engraven on various stones ; some are perfect cylinders, some 
barrel-shaped, others slightly curved inward. Others again 
are af baked clay, on which the characters have been in- 
eussed while the clay was yet moist. Many of them are 
perforated longitudinally, and revolve on a metal axis. In 
describing an engraved cylinder of great beauty found in 
the mounds opposite Mosul, Mr. Layard says, that on each 
side there were sixty lines written in such minute characters, 
that the aid of a magnifying glass was required to ascertain 
their forms. The habitual use of these elaborate articles is 
unknown, — by some they are supposed to be charms, — by 
others, records of family or personal transactions. The 
smaller examples were used to impress plastic materials as 
signets ; but it is clear, from the shapes of the greater num- 
ber, and from the circumstance that the characters they bear 
are invariably engraven or impressed in the order in which 
they are to be read, and not reversed, that they were not in- 
tended to multiply impressions on soft surfaces by way of 
diffusing information. 

That a similar art was known to the inhabitants of the old 
world generally, may safely be assumed. It is therefore not 
a little remarkable that peoples so original and ingenious as 
the Greeks, and so imitative as the Romans, should have left 
almost no vestige of their having practiced any such means 
as this to multiply their beautiful creations of fancy, or to 
embellish the tasteful appliances of domestic life ; especially 
when we consider the easy application of the art to pottery, 
and the beauty, taste, and ingenuity which they exhibited in 
that manufacture. For, excepting a few paltry designs en 
ereux on some of the coarser specimens, and a few marks 
upon the Roman military vessels, evidently stamped, there is 
no appearance of either people having had any idea of this 
kind. They had, however, numerous instruments presenting 
a singular instance how very nearly we may approach to an 
important discovery, and yet pass on unheeding. These are 



8 Five Black Arts. 

stamps of various sizes, having on their faces inscriptions in 
raised characters reversed. The material is brass or bronze. 
The letters of the inscriptions are considerably raised, and 
the face of them is rough and rounded, as though they were 
rudely cast in a mould. To the back of most a handle has 
been fastened ; some have a loop to allow the fingers to pass 
through ; some a boss to rest in the palm of the hand ; some 
a ring. One use of these stamps has probably been to pre^ 
the inscription into a soft material; but the more common 
application, especially of the smaller specimens, has evidently 
been to print the inscription on surfaces by the aid of color. 
It has been suggested that their purpose was to imprint the 
coverings of bales of goods with the marks of their owners. 
Among relics of this kind is the signet of C. Csecilius Her- 
mias.* The face of this is two inches by four-fifths of an 
inch, and the inscription (reversed) , 



CICAECILI 
HERMIAE. SN. 



with a border, is in relief, the surrounding parts being cut 
away to a considerable depth. It should be especially 
noticed, that the surface of the background is very rough ; 
and there is a ring at the back by which it could be handled 
or suspended. These circumstances render the use of it 
very clear. It would be very much easier to incise the re- 
quired inscription, and to let the field stand (indeed the art 
of engraving en ereux was well known and used), than to cut 
away the field and leave the letters in relief ; and it would 
produce a much more beautiful effect if it were used to im- 
press any soft substance ; whereas, cut as it is, the impres- 
sion sunk into wax or clay would not only be ugly, but 
illegible, and the rough surface of the background would 
present the most ungainly appearance upon the prominent 
parts of the wax, being the parts most presented to the 
eye. Its use therefore is evident. The relieved inscrip- 

* In the British Museum. 



Printing — History. 9 

tion, and no other part, being covered with ink or pigment, 
was impressed upon an even surface (papyrus, linen, parch- 
ment), and consequently left a perfect but reversed im- 
print of itself. This is the precise effect of printing with 
types. From the Greek agnomen, Caecilius probably lived 
under the emperors, when literature had become one of the 
pursuits of the great, and when the difficulties and expense 
of procuring books by the slow process of copying were 
bitterly felt. It is singular, therefore, that the Romans 
should have overlooked so obvious an improvement upon their 
own signets as the engraving whole sentences and composi- 
tions upon blocks, and thence transferring them to paper — 
even if they had gone no farther than this.* 

From this time a vast period elapses before any circum- 
stance can safely be instanced as showing that the practice 
of transferring characters was known to any, even compara- 

* The Chinese printing is not unlike this, and must by no means be sup- 
posed to have much similarity to the modern art. They assert that it was 
used by them several centuries before it was known in Europe ; in fact, 
fifty years before the Christian era. They certainly may have used their 
method centuries before our art, for it differs in nothing but extent from 
that of the old Roman. The following is a description of their method at 
the present day, and it is probably the same in every respect as that in 
practice two thousand years ago in an empire where nothing is changed. 
As their wi'itten language consists of from eighty to one hundred thou- 
sand characters, it would be utterly impracticable to use movable types, 
and the use of block-printing would be the most easy and rapid. The sen- 
tences, therefore, desired to be multiplied, being dra^-n upon their thin 
paper, this is made to adhere with the face downward to a block of soft 
wood, so that the characters appear, though reversed. The plain wood is 
then cut away with most wonderful rapidity, and the drawing left in relief. 
Both sides of the block are similarly operated upon. The engraved wood 
is then properly arranged upon a frame, and the artist, with a large brush., 
covers the whole surface, the field as well as the relief, with a very thin 
ink ; he then lays very lightly over it a sheet of paper, and passes a large 
soft brush over it, so slightly, yet so surely, that the paper is pressed upon 
the raised figures, and upon no other part. The rapidity with which this 
is performed is extraordinary ; for Du Halde asserts that one man can 
print 10,000 sheets in one day, a number which would appear incredible, 
did not very good testimony exist at the present time that one man can 
print 700 sheets per hour. The method of putting the thin sheets together 
when printed is as different from ours as their printing and mode of read- 
ing. The sheets are printed on one side only ; but instead of the blanks 
being pasted together to form one leaf, the sheet is so folded that no single 
edge of paper is presented to the reader, but only the double folded edge, 
the loose edges being all at the back of the book. The late emperor had 
punches or matrices cut, from which copper types were cast ; but the num- 
ber of characters required — about 60,000 — is so great, that composition is 
almost impracticable. 



10 Five Black Arts. 

lively civilized people. From the rough and imperfect at- 
tempts above indicated an early and obvious advance was 
engraving pictures upon wooden blocks. The first practice 
of this is involved in obscurity ; but most writers on the fine 
arts agree that the art was invented toward the end of the 
thirteenth century, by a brother and sister of the illustrious 
family of Cunio, lords of Imola, in Italy. By some the 
whole narrative is considered as apocryphal, but it is never- 
theless generally admitted. The engravings were discovered 
by a Frenchman of the name of Papillon, in the possession 
of a Swiss gentleman, M. de Groeder, who deciphered for 
him the manuscript annotations found on the leaves of th© 
book in which they were bound. These purported that the 
book had been given to Jan. Jacq. Turine, a native of Berne, 
by the Count of Cunio, with whose family he, Turine, appears 
to have been intimately acquainted. Then follows a roman- 
tic history of the twins, and the cause of their invention. 
The book is entitled : " The Heroic Actions, represented in 
figures, of the great and magnanimous Macedonian king, the 
bold and vaUant Alexander; dedicated, presented, and hum- 
bly offered to the most Holy Father Pope Honorius IV., 
the glory and support of the Church, and to our illustrious 
and generous father and mother, by us Alessandro Alberico 
Cunio, cavaliere, and Isabella Cunio, twin brother and sis- 
ter ; first reduced, imagined, and attempted to be executed 
in relief, with a small knife, on blocks of wood, made even 
and polished by this learned and dear sister ; continued and 
finished by us together, at Ravenna, from the eight pic- 
tures of our invention, painted six times larger than here 
represented ; engraved, explained by verses, and thus mark- 
ed upon the paper, to perpetuate the number of them, and 
to enable us to present them to our relations and friends, in 
testimony of gratitude, friendship, and affection. All this 
was done and finished by us when only sixteen years of age." 
This title is here given in full length, because, if genuine, it 
presents us at once with the origin, execution, and design of 
these first attempts at block-printing. The book consists of 
nine engravings, including the title ; the figures are toler- 
ably well designed, and the draperies graceful, with here and 
there attempts at cross-hatching ; under the principal person- 
ages are their names ; above, are inscriptions indicating the 



Printing — History. 11 

subject, and below, four lines of poetical Latin explanatory 
of it ; and in some parts of each print is an inscription indi- 
cating the share the twins respectively had in the execution. 
The color of the pigment is gray. 

The first subject is Alexander on Bucephalus. Upon a 
stone, Isabel. Cunio pinx. et scalp. 

The second subject, the passage of the Granicus. Alex. 
Alb. Cunio Equ. pinx. Isabel. Cunio scalp. 

The third subject, Alexander cutting the Gordian Knot. 
Alex. Albe. Cunio Equ. pinx. et scalp. 

The fourth subject, Alexander in the tent of Darius. 
Isabel. Cunio pinx. et scalp. 

The fifth, Alexander giving Campaspe to Apelles. Alex. 
Alb. Cunio Eques. pitix. et scalp. 

The sixth, the Battle of Arbela. Alex. Alb. Equ. et 
Isabel. Cunio pictor. et scalp. 

The seventl ~ 
pinx. et scalp. 

The eighth, the Triumph of Alexander upon his Entry 
into Babylon. Alex. Alb. Equ. et Isabel. Cunio pictor. et 
scalp.* 

From the dedication of this book to Pope Honorius IV., 
it is deduced that these engravings must have been executed 
between 1284 and 1285, inasmuch as this pope only enjoyed 
the pontificate two years ; and it is suggested that a copy of 
it might be found in the library of the Vatican. The narra- 
tive appears to be confirmed by many incidental circum- 
stances, which could not be the invention either of Papillon 
or his informer. The name of Alberico seems to have 
been a favorite with the family of Cunio, and a Count of 
that name actually figures in history in the very years of the 
presumed invention ; a relative of the twins, of course, not 
the male artist himself. 

The interval between the time of the twin Cunio and the 
next mention of any similar usage is very perplexing ; but 
upon examination it will appear that that long period was 
not altogether a blank in the art. The next earliest evidence 

* It is not unlikely that the twins may have been directed in the choice 
of their subject by the identity of the name of the great conqueror with 
that of the brother ; at least such coincidences are not without parallel in 
the history of literature. 



12 Five Black Arts. 

is a document of the government of Venice, discovered 
amongst the archives of the Company of Printers in that 
city. It bears the date of 1441, and as it throws some de- 
gree of light upon the controversy relative to the invention 
of printing, it is here given from Ottley's History of JE71- 
graving. 

"mcccxli. October the 11th. Whereas the art and 
mystery of making cards and printed figures, which is used 
at Venice, has fallen into total decay ; and this in conse- 
quence of the great quantity of playing-cards, and colored 
figures printed, which are made out of Venice ; to which evil 
it is necessary to apply some remedy ; in order that the said 
artists, who are a great many in family, may find encourage- 
ment rather than foreigners. Let it be ordered and estab- 
lished, according to that which the said masters have suppli- 
cated, that from this time in future, no work of the said art 
that is printed or painted on cloth or on paper, that is to say, 
altar-pieces (or images), and playing-cards, and whatever 
other work of the said art is done with a brush or printed, 
shall be allowed to be brought or imported into this city, un- 
der the pain of forfeiting the works so imported, and xxx 
livres and xii soldi, of which fine one-third shall go to the 
state, one-third to the Signori Giustizieri Vecchi, to whom 
the affair is committed, and one-third to the accuser. With 
this condition, however, that the artists who make the said 
works in this city may not expose the said works to sale in any 
other place but their own shops, under the pain aforesaid, 
except on the day of Wednesday at St. Paolo, and on Satur- 
day at St. Marco, under the pain aforesaid." 

From this it seems manifest that the art of printing from 
wood-blocks was not lost, but, on the contrary, had been so 
long practiced as to become an extensive and profitable busi- 
ness in Venice, and had spread over the Continent to such a 
degree as to destroy the trade of the Venetian artists. The 
establishment of an important manufacture, and its decay, 
necessarily infer a long period. From the constant conjunc- 
tion of the two arts of painting and printing in this docu- 
ment, we may infer (what the existence of prints and cards 
of later date prove) the method in which these figures and 
cards were manufactured, namely, that the outline was first 
printed, and that the colors and shading were filled in by the 



Printing — History. 13 

painter and illuminator. The history of playing-cards now 
becomes of some importance to the narrative. When cards 
first came into use is uncertain ; but mention is made of them 
in the year 1254, when they were interdicted by St. Louis 
on his return from the Crusade : they were also forbidden by 
the Council of Cologne in 1281. In 1299 they are express- 
ly mentioned under the name carte; and in Das Gulden 
Spiegel, printed by Gunther Zainer in the year 1472, it is 
said that cards first came into Germany in 1300. An old 
French poet, who wrote " En I'an mil iij cent xxviij," has the 
line, " Jouent aux dex, aux cartes, aux tables." There is no 
evidence earlier than the Venetian decree to connect the art 
of printing from wood-blocks with the art of making cards ; 
but as it is evident from that document that such connection 
did exist, it is a fair presumption that it originated not very 
long after the introduction of the game ; and as the sum paid 
by Charles VI. for " troix jeux de cartes " was so small as 
fifty-six Parisian sols, it has been conjectured that they must 
have been illuminated prints. The Venetian decree against 
the importation of painted and printed figures from abroad 
now brings us to the country from which the chief export was 
made. It appears, therefore, that in the Low Countries the 
manufacture was carried on to a great extent ; and we shall 
also find that in Holland and Germany, and probably over 
most of Europe, religion had called this art to her aid ; that 
whilst the noble and wealthy recreated the mind and delighted 
the eye with the exquisite productions of the scribe and illu- 
minator, the more humble were equally gratified with rude 
and simple illustrations of interesting portions of Scripture, 
or pictures of favorite saints. It is probable that the poorer 
classes hung up these drawings in their dwellings, where they 
excited as true and heart-felt devotion as the masterpieces of 
the painter's art in the oratories of the great. There is no 
evidence how early the art was practiced, nor whether the 
outlining the figures of saints and sacred subjects preceded 
the printing of cards, or was suggested by the latter ; but it 
is certain that at the end of the fourteenth and the commence- 
ment of the fifteenth century the practice was very common. 
The impressions were taken by means of a burnisher, the 
gloss caused by the friction being distinctly visible on the 
backs both of cards and prints preserved to this time. As 



14 FivE'j Black Arts. 

facility in practice increased, a distich or quotation illustra- 
tive of the print became a natural improvement ; and to this 
was frequently added a coat of arms, the name of the saint, 
or the title of the subject, all in the field, or over the head of 
the figure ; and, lastly, sometimes a date. The earliest print 
of which the date is given within the print itself,* is a wood- 
cut of St. Christopher carrying the infant Jesus across the 
sea. It is of folio size, and colored in the manner of our 
playing-cards. At the bottom is the inscription — 



€ 



rbtofori frtctcm bk quttcunquc tucris iltUlfftmo cccc"^ 

Ma ncm\)c t>\t moxU mala mn m^ricrJa. rro Uxno. 

It was found in the Monastery of Buxheim, near Meiningen, 
and is now in the possession of Earl Spencer. 

The next advance was obvious. Instead of a single block, 
a series of blocks were employed, with additional literary 
illustrations ; and thus were the first printed books formed. 
The earliest and most memorable of these are the Historia 
Sancti JoTiannis Uvangelistce, the Ars Memorandi, the 
Ars Manendi, the Bihlia Pawperum, the Historia Virginis 
3£arice, and the Speculum Humance Salvationis. The most 
important of these works is the Historic Veteris et Novi 
Testamenti seu Bihlia Pauperum — truly the Poor Man's 
Bible. It consists of forty leaves printed upon one side of 
the paper only, by friction, from as many blocks ; the color 
is brown ; the prints are placed opposite to each other, and 
the blank backs are pasted together into one strong leaf. The 
cuts are about 10 inches in height, and 1^ in width. Each 
print contains three sacred subjects in compartments, and four 
half-length figures of prophets in smaller divisions, two above 

* There is said to be a print at Lyons with the date 1384, but its existence 
is doubtful. There has lately been discovered a print with the date of 
1418, but its authenticity is yet under discussion. It was found by an in- 
habitant of Malines, who, in breaking up an old coffer which had been used 
to contain the archives of the former Grand Conseil of Malines, observed an 
ancient-looking print pasted inside the lid. The subject is the Virgin and 
Child, with Saints Catherine, Dorothy, Barbara, and Margaret, within a 
palisaded inclosure. On the top-bar of the gate is the date m : itu °rtiiii. 
distinct and unmistakable. The design and execution are very superior to 
those of the St. Christopher and the block-books. The Loiidon Athenaum 
of 1844 contains a full description of the print, and the volume of 1845 a 
facsimile. The earliest dated print taken from an engraved metal plate is 
by Maso l^iniguerra, 1460. 



Printing — History. 15 

and two beneath the principal subjects. Latin inscriptions 
are on either side of the upper figures, rhythmical verses on 
either side of the lower, and additional inscriptions are on 
labels at the bottom of the whole. The central subjects are 
from the New Testament, the others from the Old, and in some 
manner allusive to the former. There are many copies of 
this work, evidently from different blocks, and of different 
dates. Indeed it appears to have been a most popular book, 
and was printed repeatedly long after the introduction of le- 
gitimate printing ; there are several editions in which the in- 
scriptions are actually printed with movable types. The 
exact date of these curious Avorks is not ascertained ; but Dr. 
Home possessed a copy contained in one volume with the Ars 
Moriendi and the Apocalypse, all works of the same style, 
the binding of which bore the date of 142-. The original 
composition and design of this work is attributed, and not 
without some show of reason, to Ansgarius, who was Bishop 
of Hamburg and Bremen in the ninth century. 

A similar book is the Canticles, a small folio volume of 
thirty-two subjects, two being painted on each leaf, and on 
only one side of the paper, and the leaves also pasted back 
to back. It differs from the Biblia Pauperum in that the in- 
scriptions are engraven on scrolls fantastically dispersed 
amongst the figures. This is generally allowed to be of 
somewhat later date than the preceding, and to hold an in- 
termediate space between it and the jSpeculum Humance 
Salvationis, to which a larger space must be devoted, on ac- 
count of its importance in the controversy relative to the in- 
vention of printing. 

This is not, strictly speaking, a block-book ; for whilst the 
form of the design and the portion of Scripture represented 
are engraven on wood, the inscription is in some cases en- 
graven on wood also, but in others is printed in movable type. 
The Latin edition, perhaps the first, consists of sixty-three 
leaves, divided into five unequal gatherings. The subjects 
are chiefly from the Old and New Testament; but some- 
times such stories have been selected from ancient history as 
might seem in some way appropriate to the events recorded 
in sacred writ. Each subject has a short Latin inscription 
underneath it, and the text occupies the remainder of the 
page. Its size is folio ; the impressions are taken with a 



16 Five Black Arts. 

burnislier, on one side of the paper ; the color of the ink 
is brown, and the backs are pasted together, as in the books 
previously described. The work is certainly of nearly the 
same date, though probably a little later, than the Bihlia Pau- 
perum; and it may even have been in part executed by the 
same artist, for in the earlier portions there is so much general 
resemblance, both in design and execution, as to make it 
probable that the same graver was employed in both. The 
latter part, however, is the work of another artist ; the lines 
are not so bold, and there is an attempt at fineness of execu- 
tion, of shading, and of distance, which the earlier master 
did not attempt ; the design, though in better drawing, is 
not so spirited ; the drapery is more correct, though not so 
graceful ; and in fact the engraver was a better workman, 
but not so great an artist. It must be understood, that there 
are numerous editions of this work, many differing in essen- 
tial particulars, but some so nearly similar as to require a 
microscopic eye to detect the variations. Of four of these, 
two are in Latin, two in Dutch ; and between these four lies 
the contest for antiquity. Mr. Ottley (whose beautiful 
History of Engraving contains a well-drawn-up account of 
his inquiry, illustrated by most convincing examples) has, 
from a minute and laborious examination, decided that the 
two Latin and two Dutch are printed from the self-same 
blocks, and by comparing them, and finding evidences of 
fractures in the one which do not exist in the other, he has 
very satisfactorily awarded the palm of antiquity. First, 
although the Latin inscriptions in the earlier part of the 
first Latin edition (so called by commentators) are engraven 
on blocks of wood, these blocks are not of the same piece 
as the figures, the work having been divided between two 
artists, the one more skilled in engraving figures, and the 
other in engraving letters. Secondly, parts of the engrav- 
ing broken in the first Dutch are perfect in the first Latin ; 
parts imperfect in the first Latin are unbroken in the second 
Dutch, whilst the second Latin is the most perfect of all ; 
from which the conclusion is drawn that the second Latin 
is the most ancient, then the second Dutch, next the first 
Latin, and lastly the first Dutch. This order of succession 
i s of considerable importance, because the first Latin is 
printed Avith movable — some commentators say fusil — 



Printing — History. 17 

types. The printing of this work is claimed for Laurence 
Koster. 

But by whomsoever these curious works were printed, they 
bring us to the very threshold of the invention of printing, 
in the proper sense of the word. Bibliographers agree that 
the pictorial parts of the Bihlia Pauperum, the Canticles, 
and the Speculum were engraven by the same engraver, but 
from the designs of different artists ; and that while of the 
first Latin edition (placed tJiird by Ottley) the plates num- 
bering 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 16, 17, 21, 22, 
26, 27, 46, are printed entirely from wooden blocks, the five 
leaves of which the preface consists, and the text of the re- 
maining leaves — (there are 63 in all) — are printed from mova- 
ble tyije. Therefore, between the printing of the first edition 
of these three works, and the third of the Speculum, the art 
of printing with movable type had become known to the 
printer. 

We have now come fairly to the practice of printing in the 
real sense of the word ; and we have also arrived at the long- 
pending, long-controverted question, of who invented it, and 
where ? The honor is disputed by as many cities as con- 
tended for the birth of Homer. Only three of these can 
show the slightest argument for their pretensions : Harlem, 
Strasburg, and Mentz. Harlem claims it for her citizen 
Laurence Koster, or Laurent Janszoon Koster (or Gustos). 
The claim rests principally upon the narrative in the Ba- 
tavia of Hadrianus Junius, a native of West Friesland, who 
dwelt at Harlem. The work was written in 1575, but not 
published until 1588. The following is a close translation of 
the narrative : 

" There lived, a hundred and twenty-eight years ago, at 
Harlem, in houses sufficiently splendid (as a workshop, which 
remains to this day entire, can serve as proof), overlooking 
the forum from the neighborhood of the royal palace, Lau- 
rentius Joannes, by surname ^dituus, or Gustos* (which at 

* In the original, Koster is simply said to have been surnamed ^dituits, 
seu Cusios, but no mention is made of the Cathedral. The statement, there- 
fore, that he was curtos of the cathedral is a gratuitous insertion of after 
narrators. _ The word Gustos has been Dutchified into Coster or Koster; 
but there is no apparent reason why we may not suppose that Cusios was a 
barbarous Latin word for keeper, or constable, or any other translation 
the word will bear. 
2 



18 Five Black Arts. 

that time lucrative and honorable office an illustrious family 
of that name held by hereditary right), the person who now 
seeks back by just avouchments and oaths the lapsing glory 
of the invention of printing, nefariously possessed and seized 
upon by others [the man] , with the greatest right to be pre- 
sented with the greater laurel of all honors, pe by chance, 
walking in a suburban grove (as was the fashion of citizens 
in easy means to do after dinner in those days), began first 
to fashion beech-bark into letters, which being impressed 
upon paper, reversed in the manner of a seal, produced one 
verse, then another, as his fancy pleased, to be for copies to 
the children of his son-in-law ; which when he had happily 
accomplished, he began (for he was of great and acute ge- 
nius) to agitate higher things in his mind, and first of all de- 
vised with his son-in-law, Thomas Peter, who left four chil- 
dren, all of whom obtained the consular dignity (a thing 
which I mention that all may understand the art arose in an 
honorable and talented, not a servile family), a more glutinous 
and tenacious species of writing ink, which he had commonly 
used to draw letters ; thence he expressed entire figured pic- 
tures with characters added ; in which sort I have myself 
seen Adversaria printed by him, the traces of the works 
being only on opposite pages, not printed on both sides. That 
book was in the vernacular tongue by an anonymous author, 
bearing for title Speculum Nostrce Salutis ; in which it is to 
be observed among the first beginnings of the art (for never 
any is found and perfected at once), that the reverse pages 
being smeared with glue, were stuck together, lest they, 
being blank, should present a deformity. Afterward he 
changed beech-blocks for lead ; afterward he made them of 
tin, because it was a material more solid and less flexible, 
and more durable : from the relics which remained of which 
types very ancient wine-flasks being made, they are to this 
day to be seen in those houses of Laurentius which I have 
mentioned looking upon the forum, inhabited afterward by 
his grandson Gerard Thomas, whom I name for honor's sake, 
a noble citizen, who departed this life a few years ago. The 
studies of men favoring, as it happened, the new art, since a 
new merchandise never before seen, brought buyers from 
every side, with most eager quest, at once the love of the 
art increased, the establishment increased, workmen in the 



Pkinting — History. 19 

art being added to the family, the first touch of evil ; among 
whom was a certain Joannes, either (as the suspicion is) that 
Faustus of ominous name, faithless and unlucky to his master, 
or some other of the same name, I do not greatly care which, 
because I am unwilling to disquiet the shades of the silenced, 
touched with the plague of conscience while they lived. 
He being sworn by oath to the processes of printing, after 
he had (as he thought) learned thoroughly the art of put- 
ting the characters together, the knowledge of fusil types, 
and whatever else may relate to the matter, taking an op- 
portunity, than which he could not have found one more fit, 
on the very eve which is sacred to the birth of Christ, on 
which all in common are accustomed to labor at the sacred 
ceremonies, stole the whole materials,* tied up a package of 
the instruments of his master used in that art ; thence with 
a servant hurried from the house, went in the beginning to 
Amsterdam, thence to Cologne, until he arrived at Mayence, 
as to the altar of an asylum, where he might live safe beyond 
the reach of arrows (as the saying is), and having opened an 
office, enjoyed the rich fruit of his robberies. Indeed, from 
it, in the space of the (or a turning) year, in the year 1442 
from the birth of Christ, with the same types which Lauren- 
tius had used at Harlem, it is certain that he produced to 
light the Doctrinale of Alexander Gallus, which grammar 
was then in most famous use, with the Tractates of Peter 
Hispanus, his first productions. These are, for the most part, 
things which I have formerly heard from aged men worthy of 
belief, who have received them as things delivered from hand 
to hand, as a torch in a race, and have found others relating 
and attesting the same things. I remember that Nicholaus 
Galius, the instructor of my youth, a man with iron memory, 
and venerable for his long years, related to me, that when 
a boy he had beard, not once only, a certain Cornelius, 
a bookbinder, and rendered serious by age, nor less than 
eighty years old (who had lived as an underworkman in that 
office), relating with much mental anger, and with fervor, 
the course of the proceeding, the manner of the invention, 
(as he had received it from his master), the improvement 

* Or whatever else choragiwn may mean ; literally it signifies the jsroper- 
ties of a theater. 



20 Five Black Arts. 

and increase of the art, and other things of the kind ; and 
that the tears would burst from him against his will at the 
shame of the affair, as often as he talked of the robbery. 
"Which things do not differ from the words of Quirinus Tale- 
sius Con., who confessed to me that he had formerly the 
same from the mouth of the same bookbinder." 

Beyond this narrative of Hadrian Junius there is little, or 
rather no testimony to the truth of Roster's claim, all subse- 
quent argument being either drawn from or referred to this 
statement. Many very learned bibliographers have given 
full credence to Hadrian ; while others not less acute abso- 
lutely deny Koster any pretense whatever — Santander call- 
ing in question his very existence ; and there is a third party 
who, being unable to decide between the opposing arguments, 
and willing to take refuge in a middle course, allow to Koster 
the credit of having invented printing from blocks, but assign 
to his rivals that of printing from movable types. 

The whole argument may, however, be reduced into a rea- 
sonable compass. The probability of Hadrian's narrative 
will naturally be the subject of inquiry. Firat^ the round- 
about way in which this hearsay evidence reached Hadrian, 
is in itself an unsatisfactory circumstance. Little belief can 
be accorded to an uncertain bookbinder, even had any cir- 
cumstances been adduced besides the name Cornelius, by 
which this bookbinder could be identified. Secondly, Ta- 
lesius was many years secretary to Erasmus, who, although 
a Dutchman and resident in Holland, repeatedly and unhesi- 
tatingly ascribes the invention to John Gutenberg of Stras- 
burg at Mentz.* It is not at all probable that, had Erasmus 
ever heard of this story, or given the slightest credence to 
it if he had, he would have omitted some mention of a cir- 
cumstance so gratifying to his national vanity ; or that he 
should have remained in ignorance of a story well known to 
his secretary, and commonly bruited about, and therefore 
known to some of the learned men amongst whom Erasmus 
lived. Thirdly, the story of the engraving on beech-bark 

* Anno Christi 1440. Magnum quoddam ac pene divinum beneficium 
collatum est universo terrarum orbi, a Johanne Gutenberg Argentinensi, 
novo Bcribendi genere reperto. Is cum primus artem impressoriam, quem 
Latini vocant ezcusoriam, in urbe Argentinensi invenit ; inde Moguntiam 
veniens eandem feliciter complevit. {Epit. Rerum Script. 1502, cap. 95.) 



Printing — History. 21 

accidentally, when it is quite certain that the art of taking 
impressions from wood-blocks of the figures of cards and of 
saints and sacred subjects, with religious and legendary in- 
scriptions, had been known and extensively practiced, not 
only in Italy and Germany, but in Holland itself, for more 
than a century, is absurd. Fourildy^ everj author who has 
written upon the matter has given up all claim on Roster's 
behalf for the invention of cast type, the evidence in favor 
of others being too strong to be got over. Fiftlily^ the tale 
of the conversion of the relics of these types into drinking- 
cups, which were yet to be seen (1575), is discredited by 
the circumstance that no one has since seen or heard of them, 
although a controversy for the honor of a discovery in which 
they would have been evidence, was even then and has ever 
since raged furiously. Sixtlily, the story of John Fust hav- 
ing stolen all his printing materials on the eve of Christmas, 
and decamped, first to Amsterdam, then to Cologne, and lastly 
to Mentz, and his publishing there within the same year, is 
self-contradictory; for type is not a very portable commod- 
ity ; nor would he easily have escaped pursuit at Amster- 
dam, a town under the same government. Again, John 
Fust was originally no printer, but a wealthy goldsmith of 
Mentz. and certainly never worked as any printer's journey- 
man. Indeed this is such a palpable misstatement, that 
commentators upon Hadrian have boldly supposed that the 
thief was John Gutenberg — not he of Mentz, but a brother, 
also named John. Unfortunately Gutenberg's brother was 
not named John, but Friele ; there was a cousin John ; but 
the only evidence by which we become aware of the existence 
of these persons excludes the supposition that either prac- 
ticed the art ; nor is it at all likely that members of a noble 
family, and wealthy men, should have worked in the service 
of any man. If it should be asserted that it was the John 
Gutenberg, his time is so well accounted for that it is impos- 
sible, since he was then resident at Strasburg, and never was 
at Amsterdam or Cologne. Thus, then, the narrative of 
Hadrian Junius appears upon examination to be utterly in- 
credible, being at once at variance with itself and with all 
probability. 

Arguments for or against the claim of Harlem may be 
urged not derived from this narrative. Although these cir- 



22 Five Black Arts. 

cumstances are not to be believed, the main facts may never- 
theless be correct. Koster may have printed the Speculum 
and other block-books attributed to him. Ottlej says that 
they were certainly printed in Holland, for that the types are 
not those used in Germany, but closely resembled such as 
were afterward cut or cast in Holland ; and that they are of 
greater antiquity than any books printed by those who after- 
ward used the art in the Low Countries. He also attempts 
to show, by the water-marks in the paper, that the works in 
question were produced in these parts. Water-marks, how- 
ever, and some bearing a general resemblance to these, were 
common in the papers used by printers of Cologne, Louvain, 
and elsewhere ; and the argument is worth little or nothing, 
for no evidence can be given even of the dates of these works, 
and much less of the printer. The Speculum was printed 
again and again after the invention of lettei'-press printing ; 
nor is there the shghtest evidence, supposing these assertions 
to be correct, to connect them with the name of Koster. It 
is a conclusive argument against him, that those other works 
ascribed to him and his descendants are executed with the 
self-same types used at Utrecht in 1473 by Ketelaer and 
Be Leempt. Van Mander, who lived at Harlem in 1580, in 
his History of the Lives of Dutch Painters and Engravers, 
treats the claim of Harlem with contempt ; for, speaking of 
printing, he describes it as an art " of which Harlem, with 
much presumption, arrogates to herself the honor of the in- 
vention ; " nor does he make the slightest mention of his fa- 
mous fellow-citizen. There is not the least evidence that his 
three grandsons Qaotfour, as Hadrian says) ever carried on 
his business ; for where are their works ? and in their time 
printers had become so proud of their art as not only to put 
their names to every work, but even to add a long history of 
their undertaking and progress. Where are the books 
ascribed to them ? what mention is made of them by their 
cotemporaries? In a subsequent part of this article it will 
be seen that Caxton, the first English printer, is asserted to 
have been sent to Harlem to learn the art, and if possible to 
carry off one of the workmen. These things being also matter 
of controversy, cannot be used in argument ; nevertheless it is 
of some value that Caxton, who, supposing it to be true, 
would be an excellent witness in favor of Harlem, upon all 



I 



Printing — History. 23 

occasions refers the invention to Gutenberg, and makes no 
mention whatever of Harlem or Koster. 

Santander labors to disprove the very existence of any 
such person. But there is no necessity to go so far as San- 
tander : we may allow Koster's identity ; we may even 
allow that he practiced the art of taking impressions from 
wood-blocks ; but this is very different from acknowledging 
his claim to the invention of the art of printing. The most 
strenuous champion of Koster is Meerman, an eminent 
French bibliographer of the last century, who, in his Origi- 
nes Typographicce, published at the Hague in 1765, strongly 
maintains this narrative of Hadrian ; which is not a little 
singular, seeing that the Newcastle Typographical Society 
published a letter from him to Wagenaar, of eight years' prior 
date, in which he expresses a precisely contrary opinion. He 
calls Seitz's (Hadrian's) story a mere supposition, and the 
chronology a romantic invention ; gives to the Speculum the 
date of 1470 as the earliest possible ; attributes the honor to 
Gutenberg, and incidentally mentions his intention of publish- 
ing a pamphlet on the subject. Notwithstanding this, in his 
work, without any new fact whatever, he accredits Hadrian's 
story, finds consistency in the dates, believes the Sjoeculum, 
and denies John Gutenberg — completely reversing his pre- 
vious conclusion, though his premises remain the same. 

The statement of IJlric Zell, given in the Cologne Chron- 
icle, though always referred to by bibliographers, has not 
received the attention it seems to deserve. Ulric Zell is 
supposed to have been one of the workmen employed in the 
office of Fust and Schoeffer at Mentz, when that city was 
taken by the Count of Nassau in 1462. On this event Zell 
betook himself to Cologne, where he established a press, from 
which in 1467 he issued his first work. He continued to carry 
on the art in this city for many years. The Cologne Chroni- 
cle was printed by Koelhoff in 1499. Under the head of " In- 
vention of Printing," it contains an account of its discovery, 
communicated by Ulric Zell, which, considering the place 
where it was published, the nearness of the time, and the 
intimate connection of the narrator with the first movements 
of the art, carries great weight. 

" J/Jgm, this most worthy art aforesaid [was] first of all 
invented in Germany, at Mayence on the Rhine ; and that is 



24 Five Black Arts. 

a great honor to the German nation, that such ingenious 
people are to be found there ; and that happened in the year 
of our Lord 1440. 

" Item^ although the art was invented at Mayence as afore- 
said, in the manner it is now commonly used, yet the first idea 
originated in Holland from the Donatuses, which were printed 
there even before that time ; and from out of them has been 
taken the beginning of the aforesaid art, and has been in- 
vented much more masterly and cunningly than it was ac- 
cording to that same method, and is become more and more 
ingenious." 

Now we know that the Donatuses were block-books of a 
rude form, in no way resembling the art used by Zell and his 
cotemporaries ; and such as they are, there is no evidence 
that Koster printed any one of them. 

All evidence, then, and the general consent of the learned, 
in failure of Koster, unhesitatingly ascribe this invention to 

John Gutenberg, surnamed Genzfleisch, Gensfleisch, or 
Gensefleisch, von Solgenloch or Sorgenloch. He was a na- 
tive of Mentz, and of a noble family, possessed of con- 
siderable property in various places in the neighborhood. 
Fortunately the life of Gutenberg does not rest merely upon 
hearsay evidence, or the doubtful guesses of bibliographers 
from dateless wood-cuts ; legal documents supply most import- 
ant information. It appears that, for some reasons unknown, 
he resided for many years at Strasburg, and had even ac- 
quired rights of citizenship. The first document presents 
him in no amiable light. It is a lawsuit instituted to compel 
him to perform his marriage-contract with Anne von Isernen 
Thiir ; and it wonld appear that he was compelled to make 
good his promise, the name of Anne Gutenberg being found 
in the same register of the nobility liable to the wine-duty in 
the city of Strasburg, in which Gutenberg's name also ap- 
pears. The next document is so curious that an ample ab- 
stract of it cannot but be interesting. 

It appears that he had contracted an engagement with 
Andrew Dritzehen, John RiJBfe, and Andrew Heilmann, to 
instruct them in the secrets of certain arts, and had entered 
into partnership with them for their better advantage. An- 
drew Dritzehen and Andrew Heilmann having called upon 
him one day, perceived that he was engaged in a wonderful 



Printing — History. 25 

and unknown art, the secret of which he was desirous of 
keeping to himself; that, moved by their importunities, he 
consented to enter into partnership with them for the term of 
five years, on two conditions — first, that they should pay him 
the sum of 250 florins, 100 immediately, and the remainder 
at a certain fixed period ; second, that if any one of the 
partners should die during the term of the copartnership, the 
survivors should pay to his heirs the sum of 100 florins, in 
consideration of which the efiects should become the property 
of the surviving partners. Andrew Dritzehen died before 
the expiration of the period agreed on, being still indebted 
to Gutenberg in the sum of 85 florins. George and Nicho- 
las, brothers of the deceased, demanded to be admitted to 
the partnership, and on refusal, brought an action against 
Gutenberg as principal partner. The magistrates gave judg- 
ment on the 12th of December, 1439, relieving Gutenberg 
from the demand of the sum of 15 florins, being the difference 
of the sum of 100 florins, stipulated to be paid to the heirs 
of a deceasing partner, and the sum of 85 florins due to 
Gutenberg by Andrew on the original contract. The follow- 
ing evidence was produced on the trial: 

" Anna, the wife of John Schultheiss (holzman, marchand 
de hois'), deposed, that on one occasion Nicholas Beildeck 
came to her house to Nicholas Dreizehen, her relation, and 
said to him, ' My Nicholas Dreizehen, Andrew Dreizehen, of 
happy memory, has placed four stucJce (pages ?) in a press, 
which Gutenberg has desired that you will take away and 
them from one another put off, that no man may know what 
it may be, for he is not willing that any one should see.' 

" Also John Schultheiss says, that Laurence Beildeck 
sometime came to his house to Nicholas Dreizehen, when 
Andrew Dreizehen his brother was dead, and that the said 
Laurence Beildeck thus spoke to said Nicholas Dreizehen : 
' Andrew Dreizehen, your brother, now happy, had four 
stucJce lying underneath in a press. Therefore John Guten- 
berg desires you that you will take them therefrom and 
upon the presses take from one another so that no man can 
see what that is.' 

" Also Conrad Sahspach deposed, that sometime Andrew 
Heilmann came to him upon the Street of Merchants and 
said, ' Dear Conrad, as Andrew Dreizehen is departed, as 



26 Five Black Arts. 

you made the presses, and know about the matter, do you go 
thither, and take the stucJce from the presses, and thoroughly 
separate them from one another, so that no man may know 
what it is.' 

"Laurence Beildeck says that he was sent by John Guten- 
berg to Nicholas Dreizehen, after the death of Andrew his 
brother, to say to him, ' That he the presses which he under 
his care has to no man should show ; which also this witness 
did. And he further conversed with me, and said he should 
take so much trouble as to go to the presses, and with the two 
screws upon or from them so separate the stucke from one 
another, and these stucke he should then in the presses [or, 
on the presses] separate, so that thereafter no man can see 
nor understand.' 

" The same witness also said that he knew well that Guten- 
berg, a little before the feast of the Nativity, had sent his 
servant to both Andrews to take away all stucke, which were 
broken up in his sight, that none of them might be found per- 
fect. Moreover, after the death of Andrew, this witness was 
not ignorant that many were desirous of seeing the presses, 
and that Gutenberg had commanded that some one should be 
sent who might hinder any one from seeing the presses, and 
that his servant was sent to break them up. 

" Also John Dunne, goldsmith, said, that three years or 
thereabouts previous he had received from Gutenberg about 
300 florins for materials relating to printing." * 

From this curious document may be learnt, that separate 
types were used ; for if they were blocks arranged so as to 
print four pages, how could they be so pulled to pieces that 
no one should know what they were, or how could the ab- 
straction of two screws cause them to fall to pieces ? It ap- 
pears that some sort of presses were used, and the transfers 
no longer taken by a burnisher or roller ; and, lastly, that 
the art was still a great secret at the time when Koster was 
at the point of death. Hence it is manifest that the inge- 
nuity of Gutenberg had made a vast advance from the rude 
methods of the time, and had in fact invented a new and 
hitherto unknown art. 



* The original German text of these documents is given in M. Leon de 
Laborde's interesting tracts on the origin of printing. 



Feinting — History. 27 

These documents would be decisive in favor of Strasburg 
as the place in which printing was invented, had it appeared 
that any effects were produced by this establishment. This, 
however, does not seem to have been the case, as Gutenberg 
and his successors make no mention of the fact, but, on the 
contrary, claim for themselves the production of the first 
book at Mentz. Indeed the partnership appears to have ex- 
pired without any attempt at entering into fresh engage- 
ments ; for, about the year 1450, Gutenberg returned to his 
native city with all his materials, without any opposition from 
his partner. In this place he entered into partnership with 
John Fust, a wealthy goldsmith and citizen, who engaged, 
upon being taught the secrets of the art (a fact that com- 
pletely overthrows the fable of his having been one of Ros- 
ter's workmen, and of his having stolen his types), and being 
admitted into a participation of the profits, to advance the 
necessary funds ; and he did accordingly advance the consid- 
erable sum of 2020 florins. The new partnership immedi- 
ately commenced operations, and hired a house called Zum 
Jungen, and took into their employ Peter Schoeffer and 
others. Their subsequent operations we again find curiously 
chronicled in the records of another lawsuit,* in which 
Gutenberg was soon engaged with his new ally ; for Fust, 
dissatisfied with their proceedings, sought to recover from 
Gutenberg money advanced, with interest, including 800 
florins of the sum advanced in virtue of the deed of partner- 
ship. Gutenberg in defense alleged, that the 800 florins had 
not been paid at once, as stipulated ; and that they had been 
expended in preparation for the work (apparently meaning 
thereby that this sum of money should have been paid down 
for his own use, in consideration of his communicating the 
secrets of his art, and that instead of so applying it to his 
private purposes, he had expended it for the joint benefit) ; 
whilst, as to the other sums, he offered to give an account of 
their appropriation, but denied that he was liable for the in- 
terest. The judges awarded that Gutenberg should pay the 
interest, as well as the part which his accounts showed he 
had applied to his individual use. This decision took place 

* WolQi Monumenta T ypographka. Fournicr, Origine de VImprimerie. 



28 Five Black Arts. 

on the 6th of November, 1455. Upon this, Fust obtained 
from the public notary the following document : 

" To the Glory of God, Amen. Be it known unto all 
those who shall see or hear read this instrument, that in the 
year of Our Lord 1455, third indiction, on Thursday the 
sixth day of November, the first year of the Pontificate of 
our very Holy Father the Pope Calixtus III., appeared here 
at Mayence, in the great parlor of the Barefooted Friars, 
between eleven o'clock and midday, before me, the Notary, 
and the undersigned witnesses, the honorable and discrete 
person, James Fust, citizen of Mayence, who, in the name 
of his brother, John Fust, also present, has said and de- 
clared clearly, that on this same day, and at the present hour, 
and in the same parlor of the Barefooted Friars, John 
Gutenberg should see and hear taken by John Fust an oath, 
conformable to the sentence pronounced between them. And 
this sentence read in the presence of the honorable Henry 
Gunter, Cur^ of St. Christopher of Mayence, of Henry 
Kefier, and De Bechtofi" de Hanaw, servant and valet of the 
said Gutenberg ; John Fust, placing his hand upon the Holy 
Evangelists, has sworn between the hands of me, the Notary 
Public, conformable to the sentence pronounced, and to a 
letter which he has sent to me, and has taken the following 
oath, word for word : I, John Fust, have borrowed 1550 
florins which I have transmitted to John Gutenberg, which 
have been employed for our common labor, and of which I 
have paid the rent and annual interest, of which I still owe 
a part. Reckoning, therefore, for each hundred florins bor- 
rowed, as above is recited, six florins per annum, I demand 
of him the repayment and the interest, conformably to the 
sentence pronounced ; which I will prove in equity to be le- 
gal, in consequence of my claim upon the said John Guten- 
berg. In presence of the honorable Henry Gunter, of. 
Henry Keffer, and of Bechtoff de Hanaw aforesaid, John 
Fust has demanded of me an authentic instrument, to serve 
him as much and as often as he hath need, in the faith of 
which I have signed this instrument, and have set thereto my 
seal." 

From this it would appear (indeed the mortgage of his 
printing materials to Fust, mentioned in this document, 
proves) that Gutenberg had expended the whole of his con- 



Printing — History. 29 

siderable private fortune in his experiments, and had fallen 
into the power of his more wealthy associate ; for in conse- 
quence of this judgment, and owing probably to his being 
unable to repay the sums demanded, the whole of his mate- 
rials, constructed with so much perseverance, fell into Fust's 
hands ; for the initial letters used by Gutenberg and his 
partners, in works known and supposed to have been executed 
between 1450 and 1455, are likewise used by Fust and 
Schoeffer in the Psalter of 1457 and 1459. After such a 
mortifying result of so many years' labor, it would have 
been no matter for wonder had Gutenberg abandoned the 
unprofitable pursuit. On the contrary, he appears to have 
immediately started anew with fresh vigor, and this time with 
success. Another legal document gives curious informa- 
tion: 

" We, Henne (John) Genszfleisch de Sulgeloch, named 
Gudinburg, and Friele Genszfleisch, brothers, do affirm and 
publicly declare by these presents, and make known to all, 
that, with the advice and consent of our dear cousins, John, 
and Friele, and Pedirmann Genszfleisch, brothers, of Mentz, 
we have renounced and do renounce, by these presents, for 
us and for our heirs, simply, totally, and at once, without 
fraud or deceit, all the property which has passed by means 
of our sister Hebele, to the convent of St. Claire of Mentz, 
in which she has become a nun, whether the said property 
has come to it on the part of our father Henne Genszfleisch, 
who gave it himself, or in whatsoever manner the property 
may have come to it, whether in grain, ready money, furni- 
ture, jewels, or whatever it may be, that the respectable 
nuns, the abbess, and sisters of the said convent, have re- 
ceived in common or individually, or other persons of the 
convent (have received), from the said Hebele, be it little or 
much ; and we have promised and do promise, by these pres- 
ents, in good faith, for us and for our heirs, that neither we, 
nor any person on our part, nor yet our said cousins, nor any 
of their heirs, nor any person on their part, shall either de- 
mand, gain, nor claim of the said convent, nor of the abbess, 
nor of the convent in general, nor of the persons who may 
be found therein individually, the said property, of whatever 
kind it may be, either wholly or in part, and that we will 
never demand it again, either through an ecclesiastical or 



30 Five Black Arts. 

civil court, or without the aid of the law ; and that neither 
we nor our heirs will ever molest the said convent, either by 
words or deeds, either secretly or publicly, in any manner. 
And as to the books which I, the said Henne, have given to 
the library of the convent, they are to remain there always 
and forever ; and I, the said Henne, propose also to give in 
future, without disguise, to the library of the said convent, 
for the use of the present and future nuns, for their religious 
worship, either for reading or chanting, or in whatever 
manner they may wish to make use of them according to the 
rules of their order, all the hooks which 1, the said Henne, 
have printed up to this hour, or which I shall hereafter print, 
in such quantities as they may wish to make use of ; and for 
this the said abbess, the successors and nuns of the said 
convent of St. Claire, have declared and promised to acquit 
me and my heirs of the claim which my sister Hebele had to 
the sixty florins, which I and my said brother Friele had 
promised to pay and deliver to the said Hebele, as her por- 
tion and share arising from the house which Henne our 
father, assigned to him for his share, in virtue of the writings 
which were drawn up thereupon, without fraud or deceit. 
And in order that this may be observed by us and by our 
heirs, steadfastly and to its full extent, we have given the 
said nuns and their convent and order these present writings, 
sealed with our seals. Signed and delivered the year of the 
birth of J. C. 1459, on the day of St. Margaret." 

From this it will appear, that his new establishment had 
actually produced the long wished-for effect. He appears to 
have carried on the business ten years ; for in 1465 he en- 
tered into the service of Elector Adolphus of Nassau, as 
one of his band of gentlemen pensioners, with a handsome 
salary, as appears from the letters-patent, dated the 17th 
January, 1465, and finally abandoned the pursuit of an art 
which, though it caused him infinite trouble and vexation, has 
been more effectual in preserving his name and the memory 
of his acts, than all the warlike deeds and great achieve- 
ments of his renowned master and all his house. Gutenberg 
died on the 24th of February, 1468. His printing-office 
and materials had passed into the hands of Conrad Humery, 
syndic of Mentz, who had probably assisted him with money, 
and who appears to have been in some degree his partner. 



Printing — History. 31 

He afterward sold them to Nicholas Bechtermunze of El- 
field, whose works are greatly sought after by the curious, as 
they afford much proof, by collation, of the genuineness of 
the works attributed to his great predecessor. 

There does not appear to be any record of the early life 
of John Fust or Peter ScHOiiFFER before their partnership 
with Gutenberg, save that the former was a wealthy gold- 
smith and an ingenious man, and that Schoeffer, surnamed 
de Gernsheira, was a scribe. It is very likely that the com- 
bination of character and qualifications of these three men 
may afford a good clue to the wonderful taste and beauty 
which distinguish the works issued from their press, and con- 
sequently to the great general improvement of the art during 
their life. The ingenuity of Gutenberg would readily sug- 
gest a new and expeditious method of manufacturing types ; 
the practical skill of Fust as a worker in metals (and the 
•working in gold and silver had at that time attained a most 
extraordinary nicety and beauty), and his large pecuniary 
resources, would readily provide the necessary appliances, 
while the taste of Schoeffer would give all possible grace and 
beauty to the new forms. For Schoeffer, it must be recol- 
lected, was a scribe, one of the ancient and honorable craft 
whose occupation was destined to fall before the new art ; a 
transcriber, perhaps an illuminator, of the manuscript works 
in use before printed books ; and those who have had the 
happiness of viewing those exquisite specimens of skill which 
beguiled our ancestors into study and devotion (when will 
modern typography produce such feasts for mind, and eye, 
and imagination ?) will readily conceive that Schoeffer's eye 
was already schooled for the conception, and his hand for the 
execution, of all the beauty the trammels of a new art and 
limited skill would allow. Aided by his own taste and his 
partners' invention and wealth, Schoeffer proceeded to a new 
enterprise, namely the casting of type. The entire concep- 
tion and execution of this invention has been generally at- 
tributed and allowed to Schoeffer. It seems most probable, 
however, that where three ingenious men are bound together 
by art and interest, no one of them can lay exclusive claim 
to any invention or undertaking executed in the workshops 
and for the mutual benefit of all. Allowing, therefore, to 
Schoeffer, the honor of having suggested some such plan, the 



32 Five Black Arts. 

other two may fairly put in a claim for their portion of the 
credit on the score of their suggestion and assistance ; espe- 
cially since Fust, as a worker in metals, would have been 
the party to engage workmen to elaborate the conceptions of 
his partners' brains. Accordingly the only evidence upon the 
subject appears to show that the partners had for some time 
practiced a method of taking casts of types in moulds of 
plaster ; for it must be remembered that the types of Guten- 
berg's earher efforts, both at Strasburg and at Mentz, were 
cut out of single pieces of wood or metal with infinite labor 
and imperfection. This method of casting, however, although 
a great improvement, was at best but a slow and tedious pro- 
cess. Almost every type cast would require a new mould ; 
no skill or care could enable the workman to impress so 
small a thing as a type is at the face, yet so elongated in the 
shank, fully, freely, and steadily, into a soft material ; and 
it would be necessary afterward, under the most favorable 
circumstances, that the squareness and sharpness so indispens- 
able in type should be given by another slow process ; so 
that at best this advance was but an imperfect and tedious 
operation. Schoeffer has therefore an undoubted claim to be 
considered as one of the three inventors of printing ; for he 
it was who first suggested the cutting of punches, whereby 
not only might the most beautiful form of type the taste and 
skill of the artist could suggest be fairly stamped upon the 
matrix, but a degree of sharpness and finish quite unattaina- 
ble in type cut in metal or wood could be given to the face ; 
whilst to the shank, by the very same process by which the 
face was cast, the mould would give perfect sharpness and 
precision of angle. Add to this, that the punch being once 
approved of, could be kept ready to stamp a new matrix in 
precisely the same condition and form as the first, should that 
be worn out or mislaid, or make a duplicate should the de- 
mands of business require it. It is nevertheless rather 
singular, that the mould represented on the right side of the 
press of Ascensius, shortly after the time of Schoeffer, should 
be precisely the same in form and manner of use as that of 
the present day. This was evidently an immense stride 
toward perfection ; let Schoeffer therefore take a place on 
the right hand of the inventor. 

Whatever may have been the several shares of the mas- 



Printing — History. 33 

ters in perfecting their art, their joint labors were effectual. 
The first productions of their press — passing over an Alpha- 
bet, the Jboctrinale of Alexander Gallus, and a Donatus, 
which are of doubtful authenticity, and are merely block- 
books — were three editions of Donatus, the first books known 
to have been printed entirely with movable types. In 1455 
they printed the celebrated Litterce Indulgentice Nicolai V. 
Pont. Max., which is the first work — it is only a single page 
— printed with movable types which is dated. In 1455, or 
thereabouts, for it has no date, they printed the famous Bib- 
lia Latina Vulgata, generally known as " the Mazarine 
Bible." It has no colophon or Explicit. And it should be 
noted, that there is no book known which bears the conjoint 
names of Gutenberg, Fust, and Schoeffer, nor any which has 
the imprint of Gutenberg alone. 

Within eighteen months of their separation from Guten- 
berg, Fust and Schoeffer produced the celebrated Psalter. 
This was printed with large cut type. As it is impossible 
that a new font could have been prepared, and so splendid 
a work printed within that short space, it must be evident 
that the partners did great injustice to Gutenberg in sup- 
pressing his name from the colophon. This book was pro- 
duced in the month of August, 1457, and is the first book 
which bears the name of the place where it was printed, 
those of the printers, and the date of the year in which it 
was printed. This Psalter was reprinted in 1459, 1490, and 
1502, and always in the same type, which, it is remarkable, 
was never used for any other work, probably because its 
great size made it unfit for any other works than those not 
intended for popular reading, but to lay on desks like our 
church Bibles. On the IGth of October, 1459, Fust and 
Schoeffer published the Durandi Rationale Divinorum Offi- 
ciorum, with an entirely new font of type; in 1460 the 
Constitutiones Clementis V.; and in 1462 the celebrated 
Latin Bible. In 1465 they printed Cicero de Officiis, in 
which occur the first printed Greek types. Fust enjoyed this 
successful and glorious practice of his art but ten short years ; 
yet in this period what an immense advance from the mis- 
shapen and irregular lumps of their first efforts, ugly in them- 
selves, and more ugly in their utter want of relative propor- 
tion and alignment, to the well-proportioned, evenly-stand- 
3 



34 Five Black Arts. 

ing type of the Bible ! The plague carried him off in Paris 
about the year 1466, full of years, and perchance full of 
honors. Schceffer survived many years, and, in conjunction 
with Conrad Henlif, produced a great number of works. 
His name is found in the colophon of the fourth edition of 
the Bible of 1402, about which time he is supposed to have 
deceased. There are ten books which are known to have 
been printed by Fust and Schoeffer conjointly. Schoeffer 
continued to print during a period of thirty-five or thirty-six 
years after the death of Fust, and his productions are very 
numerous. 

Were we to take tradition for our guide as regards the 
character of Fust, we should regard him as a conjuror and 
an adept in the black art. The popular story (and many 
" grave and discreet old men " have given credit to the tale) 
runs, that having kept these proceedings profoundly secret, 
as soon as their Bible was finished, Fust transferred himself 
to Paris with many copies of the new work, and palmed 
them upon the learned as manuscripts — to which, as they 
were printed on vellum, in a type bearing much resemblance 
to the written books of the period, and the vignettes and 
initial letters were splendidly illuminated, they were not very 
dissimilar ; that some eager scholar or devotee became the 
possessor of the first copy, supposing it to be a rare chance, 
at the moderate price of four or five hundred crowns ; that 
as he brought the work into the market, the price fell rapidly 
to sixty, and then to thirty crowns, by which time the extra- 
ordinary glut produced suspicion, and Fust was accused of 
multiplying Holy Writ by the aid of the Devil, and was ac- 
cordingly persecuted by the priesthood, whilst the laity, look- 
ing to their temporal interests, prosecuted him for his inroad 
into their pockets ; and that from these things Fust was 
obliged to quit Paris precipitately. 

Having thus given a sketch of the origin and history of 
the art of printing, a brief account of the works issued by 
the illustrious triumvirate will not only be proper here, but 
will give the general reader a better idea of the astonishing 
perfection to which the art rose under the taste and genius 
of its inventors. As before remarked, there is not a single 
work of Gutenburg which bears his name ; yet there are 
several which bear such internal evidences that the literati 



Printing — History. 35 

of all parties and opinions are unanimous in attributing them 
to bis press. 

Of these works, Dr. Dibdin, the well-known bibliographer, 
gives the following account : 

" First, as to the character of the type used by the early 
Mentz printers. This appears to have been uniformly what 
is called Gothic; and if we except the varieties of the larger 
type (from three-eighths to two-eighths or to a quarter of an 
inch), which appear in the Psalters of 1457, 1459, and 1490 
(the type common to the most works executed about the same 
period), we shall observe three distinct sets or forms of let- 
ters used in the printing-office of Faust and Schoiffher. Of 
these three typographical characters, two only (if we except 
the one with which the Bible of 1455 was executed) are 
visible in the publications which appear to have been printed 
in the lifetime of Faust ; that is to say, the larger Gothic 
used in the Bible of 1462, and the smaller Gothic in the 
Offices of Cicero, of the dates of 1465 and 1466. These 
appeared united, the former, for the first time, in the Consti- 
tutions of Pope Clement V., of the date of 1460. Schoiff- 
her introduced a type of an intermediate size, which may 
be seen, among other works, in the Rudiments of Grammar 
of 1468, and in the Decretals of Pope Gregory the Ninth, 
of the date of 1479. This intermediate type is of a nar- 
rower form, and prints very closely. Of the three types 
here mentioned, the largest is undoubtedly of the handsomest 
dimensions ; but they all partake of the Secretary Gothic, 
and may be said to be the model of that peculiar character 
which was adopted by the early Leipsic printers, Thanner 
and Boettiger, and was more especially used by John Schoiff- 
her and the other German printers for nearly the whole of 
the sixteenth century. Shew me, Lisardo, one book, nay, 
one leaf only, printed in the Roman type, in the colophon 
of which the name of Faust or of Peter Schoiffher appears, 
and you shall immediately have the amount of the balance 
in my favor, at my banker's, be it great or small, be it 200Z. 
or 20Z., for such a precious and unheard-of curiosity. 

" We shall now, in the second place, say a few words as 
to the character of the printing, or of the mechanical skill, 
of the early Mentz press. There can be but one opinion 
upon this point. Every thing is perfect of the kind, the pa- 



36 Five Black Arts. 

per, the ink, and the register, or regularity of setting up the 
page. The Bible of the supposed date of 1455 is quite a 
miracle in this way ;* but the Psalters are not less miracu- 
lous, nor is less praise due to the Constitutions of Pope 
Clement F., of the date of 1460, and the Bihle of 1462 ; 
while the Durandus, of the earlier date of 1459, exhibiting 
the first specimen of the smallest letter, strikes one as among 
the most marvelous monuments extant of the perfection of 
early typography. Almost all the known works before the 
year 1462 are printed upon vellum, doubtless because they 
ventured upon limited impressions ; and even of the Bible of 
1462 more copies have been described upon vellum than upon 
paper. Upon the whole, the vellum used by Faust and 
Schoiflfher, although inferior to the Venetian, is exceedingly 
good, being generally both white and substantial. 

" In the third place, let us notice the nature or character 
of the works which have issued from the press of Faust and 
Schoiifher. Whatever may be our j partiality toward that 
establishment from which the public were first gratified with 
the sight of a printed book, candor obliges us to confess 
that the fathers of printing were not fortunate, upon the 
whole, in the choice of books which issued from their press. 

" In the fourth place (for I told you I should be somewhat 
tautologous), consider what is the typographical appearance 
of these books which Gutenberg is really supposed to have 
executed. It is quite unique. A little barbarous, and cer- 
tainly wholly dissimilar from any thing we observe in other 
cotemporaneous productions of the Mentz press. You will 
please to understand that I think very doubtfully of the Dona- 
tuses, which are considered to have been printed by him ; 
as well as of the Speculum Sacerdotum, and Celebratio Mis- 
sarum; concluding the Catholicon of 1460, and the Vocab- 
ularies of 1467 and 1469, to be the more genuine produc- 

* This is even sober praise. The mechanism of the press-work, and ap- 
pearance of the ink, beautiful, regular, and glossy as the whole appears, 
does not strike one with more astonishment than the manufacture of the 
paper. " Charta," says Tungendres, " ejusdem est crassitudinis, qualem 
illo tempore libris imprimendis consumere mos fuit." And again, " Charta 
ob ejus densitatem atque spissitudinem hand ingratam ubique se maxime 
commendat." (^Bisq. de Not. Charact. Libror. p. 27, p. 46.) And see Meer- 
man's testimony in favor of the paper of the Soubiaco press, Orig. Typog. 
vol. i. p. 9, note. 



Printing — History. 37 

tions of his press, or of the types used by him. Is it not 
surprising, I ask, that these works are executed in types 
quite different from any thing in the Mentz productions ? and 
this from a man who is considered as the parent of printing 
in that city. No wonder, if they he the actual productions 
of Gutenberg, that Faust and Schoiffher thought so meanly 
of his talents, and that on a dissolution of partnership they 
adopted a different and a very superior character." 

In confirmation of these remarks of the learned bibliog- 
rapher, we shall here insert a specimen of Gutenberg's 
Balbas de Janua, which will also be a curious illustration of 
ancient art. Notwithstanding the appearance of these types, 
the reader is assured that the original is really printed from 
separate pieces of metal.* 

iisniiifatiua paottifriacotic piio>al5t?i*a^ 

Dr. Home, in the appendix to his Introduction to Bihliog- 
raphy, says of the Psalter, " This precious work, as San- 
tander justly calls it, is one of the most known among early 
printed books, from the various and correct descriptions of 
it which have been given by different bibliographers. Un- 
til the discovery of Pope Nicholas's Literce Indulgentiarum, 
this was supposed to be the very first article ever printed 
with a date affixed ; the book is executed on vellum, and of 
such extreme rarity that not more than six or seven copies 
are known to be in existence ; all of which, however, differ 
from each other in some respect or other. The most perfect 
copy known is that in the imperial library at Vienna ; it 
comprises 175 leaves, of which the Psalter occupies the 135 
first and the recto of the 136th. The remainder is appro- 
priated to litany, prayers, responses, vigils, etc. The psalms 
are executed in larger characters than the hymns, similar to 
those used for missals prior to the invention of printing ; but 

* The initial A is illuminated in a very brilliant blue. The reader who 
is desirous of obtaining the full effect of this specimen can fill up the 
printed outline in water-color. 




38 Five Black Arts. 

all are distinguished for their uncommon blackness. The 
capital letters, 288 in number, are cut on wood with a de- 
gree of delicacy and boldness which are truly surprising ; the 
largest of these, the initial letters of the psalms, which are 
black, red, and blue, must (as Lichtenberger has remarked) 
have passed three times through the press. Copies are now 
in the Queen's library at Windsor, and in that of Earl Spen- 
cer at Spencer House." 

The extraordinaay praise awarded by these eminent bib- 
liomaniacs to the first productions of the Mentz press may 
perchance excite in the minds of the more sober public a 
suspicion that these writers have been led away by their en- 
thusiasm beyond the limits of matter-of-fact truth, and have 
seen merit in defects, beauty in deformity, and luster in an- 
tiquity. Assuredly, nevertheless, such is by no means the 
case ; and the happy individual who gains access to the clief- 
d'oeuvres of Fust and SchoeflFer will return from the inspec- 
tion a wiser man ; for the beauty of these works is inconceiv- 
able. England fortunately possesses several of these treas- 
ures of art, there being copies of the Bible of the supposed 
date of 1450-55 in the Royal Library, in the Bodleian, and 
in those of Earl Spencer and Henry Perkins, Esq. ; whilst 
of the six known copies of the Psalter of 1457, two are in 
England, namely, one at Windsor, and one in the possession 
of Lord Spencer. Of the Latin Bible of Fust and Schoeffer, 
1462 (the first bearing date), there are copies on vellum at 
Blenheim, in the libraries of Lord Spencer, the Earl of Jer- 
sey, one formerly belonging to Sir M. Sykes, in the British 
Museum, and in the Bodleian (imperfect). Copies on paper 
are rarer still, there being but three in England, viz., those 
in the Royal Library and the British Museum, and one lately 
in the possession of Mr. Willett. 

Apparently, in retaliation for the injustice done to Gut- 
enberg by his partners in depriving him of any share of 
the honor of producing the Psalter of 1457, which, as before 
stated, must be the joint production of all three, although it 
was not finished until after the secession of Gutenberg, bib- 
liographers have generally agreed in attributing the printing 
of the Bible of 1450-55 to Gutenberg alone, when it is 
equally manifest that Fust and Schoefier had as much claim 
to the honor as their coadjutor. It is an exceedingly beau- 



Pkinting — History. 39 

tiful book, in two very large folio volumes, in two columns, 
containing from forty-one to forty-three lines each, in very 
large well-cut types. It consists of six hundred and forty- 
one leaves ; it has no title, paging, signatures, or catch- 
words; the initial letters are not printed, but painted in 
by illuminators, and the initial letters of each verse of the 
psalms are painted alternately red and black, by way of 
guide to the priests in their alternate reading. From the 
luster and blackness of the ink, its evenness of color, and 
beautiful execution, it is a very superb book ; but it is nev- 
ertheless surpassed by the Fust and Schoeflfer edition of 1462, 
when they had attained greater experience in the practice of 
the art. By far the choicest, however, of these editiones 
principes, is the Mentz Psalter or Codex Fsalmorum before 
mentioned. Dr. Home says that the six known copies of this 
edition differ from each other in some respects, and proceeds 
to give some particulars in which variations are found ; but 
by collating the copies in the Royal Library, that at Windsor, 
and that at the British Museum, it will be found that, al- 
though bearing the same date, they are in fact three distinct 
editions. It would have excited no surprise had it been 
found that the printed ornaments differed, as nothing would 
be more easy than to change the colors with which the differ- 
ent blocks were worked ; and in fact in the Museum copy 
the initial B is printed in a bright blue, and the scroll-work 
is red ; but the text varies in such a manner that there can 
be no doubt of their perfect distinctness. 

It must also be noted that in the Windsor copy each line 
is "justified out," which is not the case in Earl Spencer's 
copy ; and that in the Museum copy the page commences 
with rubrical matter, which is continued down the two first 
lines of text, which are shortened. The difference is effect- 
ed by variations in the contractions of many of the words. 
The book* is a very large folio, on vellum, consisting of 
about a hundred and thirty leaves, printed on both sides. 
There are generally twenty-three lines in a page, in Gothic 
type. Every psalm begins with a splendid initial letter, 
printed in two colors in almost every case. Occasionally, 

* The copy described is that at Windsor ; the illuminations, no d oubt 
vary in every copy. 



40 Five Black Arts. 

however, this appears to have been neglected, and then the 
letter is painted in by the illuminator, but not in imitation of 
the printed letters. The initials consist of a bold character, 
of Gothic cut, surrounded by a scroll, which is sometimes of 
great length, but that of the B extending from the top to the 
bottom of the page. The same wooden block is used as often 
as the letter occurs, but it is not always in the same colors. 
Moreover, every verse commences with a smaller initial 
printed in a red color. Nor is this work destitute of the 
embellishments of the illuminator ; for at the commencement 
of every psalm is a rubric, painted in a most brilliant red, 
in a smaller letter, of precisely the same character as the 
text, and also the music of the chant, with the words under- 
neath it painted in black. The initial letters of both are 
spendidly illuminated in various colors. The paint is used 
in such profusion that the letters are absolutely in relief, 
often to the extent of one-sixteenth of an inch ; and besides 
these, the letter following the grand initial has a broad bar 
painted down it, and very frequently the first letter after 
the pauses indicated in our authorized version by a colon is 
illuminated in a similar manner. One page is particularly 
splendid : it consists of short verses, in which the first words 
are constantly repeated. It commences with a grand initial, 
and there are twenty-two smaller initials to the verses ; the 
second letter of the first verse, and the first letter after every 
pause (twenty-three in number), having the broad illumin- 
ated bar. Wherever the psalm commences too near the bot- 
tom to allow of the full exuberance of the scroll, a piece of 
paper appears to have been laid over a portion of the cut, 
to prevent the impression from appearing ; and in one psalm 
where the chant is of unusual length, the lower part of the 
initial 0, and a corresponding portion of the scroll, are thus 
suppressed ; the music being illuminated in its place, and 
the scroll continued below it. Sometimes the illuminator 
has omitted to add his initial letter ; and in this copy the 
double device is omitted. The accuracy with which the 
colored blocks are printed within the text and within each 
other is perfectly astonishing. From this description it may 
be conceived how very superb is the first book ever printed, 
the date, and place, and artist, of which can be accurately 
ascertained. Dr. Dibdin in the Bihliotheca Spenceriana^ 



Printing — History. 41 

Mr. Savage in his work on Decorative Printing^ Dr. Home, 
whose wood-block is not colored, and several other writers, 
have given fac-similes of the same copy (Lord Spencer's), 
which, however, all diifer from one another. 

The capture of the city of Mentz by Count Adolphus of 
Nassau in the year 1462, had the effect of interrupting the 
labors of Fust and Schoeffer ; and moreover the distracted 
state of the city enabled, perhaps compelled, the workmen 
initiated in the mysteries of the art to flee into the neighbor- 
ing states, and thus spread its practice over the whole civil- 
ized globe. Such, indeed, was the fame it had already 
acquired, and such the idea entertained of its importance, 
that every community Avith the slightest pretensions to liter- 
ature appears to have sought a knowledge of it with the great- 
est avidity. Thus, within six years of the publication of the 
Psalter, it had spread to several cities having some connec- 
tion with Mentz, and within fifteen years to almost every 
town of consideration in Christian Europe. A chronological 
list of the cities which first seized upon the invention would 
be greatly too long for this article ; it may be interesting, 
however, to extract a few of the principal, with a notice of 
such printers as are remarkable either for the beauty or the 
scarcity of their works. The reader is not to suppose that 
all, or indeed any great number of these, learned the prac- 
tice of the art under the tuition of the first masters. A few 
are known to have been pupils of the inventors, and it is 
probable that many others of them were so; but the majority, 
in all likelihood, were men of learning, enterprise, or capital, 
who derived their typographical knowledge from such facts 
as had transpired, or from inferior workmen of Fust and 
Schoeffer or Gutenberg supplying deficiencies by their own 
ingenuity. 

Strashurg. Mentelin. Some writers have claimed for 
Mentelin the invention of printing, representing that Guten- 
berg was his servant, without, however, showing the slightest 
ground for their assertions ; but others, more reasonable, say 
that he was acquainted with Gutenberg, and instructed by 
him, and that on the latter's quitting Strasburg he estab- 
lished a printing-office, and carried on the business success- 
fully. Mentelin most probably printed about the year 1458. 
His type is rude and inelegant. The only book bearing his 



42 Five Black Arts. 

name is Beauvais's Speculum Historiale, of date 1473. 
Schaepflin says, that he, as well as Fust and Schoeffer at 
Mentz, printed 300 sheets per day. 

In 1461. Bamberg. Albert Pfiister. He printed a col- 
lection of Fables, of date 1461. This book is excessively 
rare ; it is printed with cast metal type, and is illustrated 
with 101 wood-cuts, in much the same style as the old Biblia 
Pauperum. All his other works are printed in the same 
type. 

1465. Subiaco and Rome. Schweynheym and Pannartz. 
Their known works are, a Bonatus, without date ; Lactan- 
tius, 1465 ; St. Augustin on the City of God, 1467 ; Cicero 
de Oratore, without date ; and the Commentary of Be Lyra 
on the Bible, 1471, all in folio. These works were printed 
in a new letter, very closely resembling the type now in use 
called Roman, and of which they were the introducers. 
In Be Lyra are the earliest specimens of Greek types worthy 
of the name ; some few letters appear in the Cicero de Officiis 
printed at Mentz, but so wretchedly imperfect that they are 
unworthy of mention. It is curious that the Greek font of 
Schweynheym and Pannartz at Subiaco was evidently very 
small ; but upon their removal to Rome they cast a much larger 
font. The cut and appearance of this Greek is more than 
respectable. There is a very curious petition from them to 
the pope, praying for assistance on the ground that they had 
entirely ruined themselves by printing Be Lyra, for which 
there was no sale, and representing that they had on their 
hands no less than eleven hundred folio volumes of that 
work. Subiaco is the first place in Italy in which printing 
was practiced. At Rome Ulric Han and Lignamine were 
cotemporaries. Their works, particularly those of Han, are 
excessively rare. 

1467. Elfield. Henry and Nicholas Bechtermunze. They 
purchased from Conrad Humery the types and materials 
of Gutenberg. Their works are not at all remarkable for 
beauty, but are very rare, and much sought for as affording 
evidence of Gutenberg's works. 

1467. Cologne. Ulric Zell. His type is Gothic, and 
of no beauty ; but his works are rare. 

1468. Augsburg. Ginther Zainer printed the first book 
in Germany with Roman type. 



Printing — History. 48 

1469. Venice. John de Spira, whose works are of the 
utmost beauty. His edition of Pliny is splendid, and enor- 
mous sums have been given for those printed in vellum. He 
did not use Greek characters ; but Greek passages are com- 
posed in Roman types. In the same city, at the same time, 
printed Nicholas Jenson, whose works are equal, if not su- 
perior, to those of Spira ; they are not so rare, but are almost 
equally sought after. A copy of his folio Latin Bible of 
1479, printed in Gothic type, was sold at Mr. Edwards's sale 
for 115?. 10s. Venice was also the residence of Christopher 
Valdarfar, whose works gave rise to a most extraordinary 
event connected with bibliography, viz., the sale of the first 
edition of II Becamerone di Boccaccio, printed by him in 
1471. For many years it had been known that a single 
copy of this work was in existence, and the most devoted 
bibliomaniacs had used their utmost endeavors to discover it, 
but in vain. At length, about 1470, an ancestor of the 
Duke of Roxburghe obtained possession of it for the sum of 
one hundred guineas. In lapse of time it became the prop- 
erty of John duke of Roxburghe, the accomplished, indefat- 
igable, and undaunted bibliomaniac, after whose death his 
gorgeous library was dispersed by the auctioneer in the year 
1811. The interest excited amongst the learned by this sale 
was intense. It was known that the collection contained the 
most superb specimens of every kind of ancient lore ; that 
the illuminated manuscripts were the most brilliant, the bal- 
lads the most obscure, the editiones principes the most com- 
plete that the world could produce ; that the rarest Caxtons, 
the finest Pynsons, and grandest specimens of the foreign 
printers, were here to be found ; above all, it was rumored 
that a mysterious edition of Boccaccio's Decameron would 
become a bone of contention amongst the noblest of the 
literati. The public, learned and unlearned, were infected 
with the mania, and the daily papers teemed with notices of 
the sale. At length the important day arrived, the 17th of 
June, 1811. St. James's Square was the place. Mr. Evans 
presided. The room was crowded ; Earl Spencer, the Mar- 
quis of Blandford, the Duke of Devonshire, and an agent of 
Napoleon, were amongst the most prominent. The book was 
a small folio, in faded yellow morocco binding, black-letter. 
" Silence followed bis (Mr. Evans's) address," says Dibdin. 



44 Five Black Arts. 

"On his right hand, standing against the wall, stood Earl 
Spencer; a little lower down, and standing at right angles 
with his lordship, appeared the Marquis of Blandford. The 
duke, I believe, was not then present ; but my Lord Althorpe 
stood a little backward, to the right of his father. Earl Spen 
cer. Such was ' the ground taken up ' by the adverse hosts. 
The honor of firing the first shot was due to a gentleman of 
Shropshire, unused to this species of warfare, and who seem- 
ed to recoil from the reverberation of the report himself had 
made. ' One hundred guineas,' he exclaimed. Again a 
pause ensued ; but anon the biddings rose rapidly to five 
hundred guineas. Hitherto, however, it was manifest that 
the firing was but masked and desultory. At length all ran- 
dom shots ceased, and the champions before named stood 
gallantly up to each other, resolving not to flinch from a trial 
of their respective strengths. ' A thousand guineas ' were 
bid by Earl Spencer ; to which the marquis added ' ten.' 
You might have heard a pin drop. All eyes were turned ; 
all breathing well nigh stopped. Every sword was put home 
within its scabbard, and not a piece of steel was seen to move 
or to glitter save that which each of these champions brand- 
ished in his valorous hand. See, see ; they parry, they lunge, 
they hit ; yet their strength is undiminished, and no thought 
of yielding is entertained by either. ' Two thousand pounds ' 
are ofiered by the marquis. Then it was that Earl Spencer, 
as a prudent general, began to think of an useless effusion of 
blood and expenditure of ammunition, seeing that his adver- 
sary was as resolute and fresh as at the onset. For a quar- 
ter of a minute he paused, when my Lord Althorpe advanced 
one step forward, as if to supply his father with another spear 
for the purpose of renewing the contest. His countenance 
was marked with a fixed determination to gain the prize, if 
prudence in its most commanding form, and with a frown of 
unusual intensity of expression, had not bade him desist. 
The father and son for a few seconds converse apart ; and 
the biddings are resumed. ' Two thousand two hundred and 
fifty pounds,' said Lord Spencer. The spectators are now ab- 
solutely electrified. The marquis quietly adds his usual 'ten,' 
and there is an end of the contest. Mr. Evans, ere his ham- 
mer fell, made a due pause, and, indeed, as if by something 
preternatural, the ebony instrument seemed itself to be 



Printing — History. 45 

charmed or suspended in ' in mid-air.' However, at length 
down dropped the hammer, and, as Lisardo has not merely 
poetically expressed himself, ' the echo ' of the sound of that 
fallen hammer 'was heard in the libraries of Rome, of Milan, 
and Saint Mark.' Not the least surprising incident of this 
extraordinary sale is, that the marquis already possessed a 
copy of the work, which wanted a few leaves at the end ; he 
therefore paid this enormous sum for the honor of possessing 
a fe\^ pages. The prize of this contest is now in the posses- 
sion of Earl Spencer." 

1469. 3Iilan. Lavagna. In 1476 Dionysius Palava- 
sinus printed the Greek Grammar of Constantino Lascaris, 
in quarto, which is the first book printed entirely in Greek. 
The first printing in Hebrew characters was performed at 
Soncino, in the duchy of Milan, in 1482. 

1470. Paris. Ulricus Gering, M. Crantz, and M. Fri- 
burger. 

1471. Florence. Bernard Cennini. In 1488 Demetrius 
of Crete printed the first edition of Homer's works, in most 
beautiful Greek. 

1474. Basle. Bernardus Richel. 

1474. Valencia. Alonzo Fernandes de Cordova. 

1474. Louoain. Joannes de Westphalia. 

1474. Westminster. William Caxton, the Game of 
Chess. 

1475. Luhech. Lucas Brandis. 

1476. Antiverp. Thierry Martins of Alost. 

1476 . Pilsen in Bohemia. Statuta Synondalia Pragen- 
sia ; printer's name not known. 

1476. Delft. Maurice Yemantz. 

1478. G-eneva. Adam Steinschawer. 

1478. Oxford. Theodericus Rood. 

1480. St. Albans. Laurentii Guillielmi de Saona 
Rhetorica Nova ; printer's name not known. 

1482. Vienna. John Winterburg. 

1483. StocMiolm. Johannes Snell. 

1483. Harlem. Formulce JVovitioruniy by Johannes 
Andriesson. This is the earliest book printed at Harlem 
with a date. In giving this as the first work known to be 
printed at Harlem, the claims of Koster, his grandsons and 
successors, must, of course, be reserved. 



46 Five Black Arts. 

1493. Copenhagen. Gothofridus de Ghemen. 

1500. Cracow. Joannes Haller. 

1600. Munich. Joannes Schobzer. 

1500. Amsterdam. D. Pietersoen. 

1507. Edinburgh. A Latin Breviary ; no printer's 
name. From a patent of James lY. it appears that the first 
printing-prQSS was established at Edinburgh in 1507. From 
the style and types, it is probable that they were imported 
from France. 

1551. Dublin. Ireland was apparently the last country 
in Europe into which printing was introduced. The first 
book printed is a black-letter edition of the Book of Com- 
mon Prayer, printed by Humphrey Powell. 

1569. Mexico. Antonio Spinoza, Vocabidario en Len- 
gua Gastellana y Mexicana. 

1639. United States, at the town of Cambridge, in the 
State of Massachusetts. Printer, Stephen Daye.* 

* The first printing-press " worked " in the American Colonies was " set 
up " at Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1639. Rev. Jesse Glover procured 
this press by "contributions of friends of learning and religion" in Am- 
sterdam and in England, but died on his passage to the new world. Ste- 
phen Daye was the first printer. In honor of his pioneer position, Gov- 
ernment gave him a grant of three hundred acres of land. 

Pennsylvania was the second colony to encourage printing, William 
Bradford came to Pennsylvania with William Penn, in 1686, and estab- 
lished a printing-press in Philadelphia. In 1692, Mr. Bradford was in- 
duced to establish a printing-press in New York. He received 40Z. per 
annum and the privilege of printing on his own account. Previous to this 
time, there had'been no printing done in the Province of New York. His 
first issue in New York was a proclamation bearing the date of 1692. 

It was nearly a century after a printing-press had been set up in New 
England before one would be tolerated in Virginia. 

The southern colonists had no printing done among them till 1727. 
There was a printing-press 

At New London in Connecticut, in - - 1709. 
" Annapolis in Maryland, - - . . 1726. 
" Williamsburg in Virginia, ... 1729. 
" Charleston in South Carolina, - - . 1730. 
" Newport in Rhode Island, ... 1732. 
" Woodbridge in New Jersey, ... 1752. 
" Newbern in North Carolina, ... 1755. 
" Portsmouth in New Hampshire, - - . 1756. 
" Savannah in Georgia, .... 1562. 
The first printing-press established in the North-West Territory was 
worked by William Maxwell, at Cincinnati, in 1793. The first printing 



Printing — History. 47 

It was the custom of the early printers to distinguish their 
books by the most fantastic devices ; and by these their 
works may be readily recognized. Many of them were of 
exceeding beauty, and all the skill and appliances of their 
art were employed to render them striking ; they are really 
an ornament to their works. The invention of these has 
been ascribed to Aldus ; but the very first printers, Fust and 
SchoefFer, used each for himself, yet conjoined, devices of 
rare excellence. 

Our chronological arrangement has prevented us from 
mentioning some of the most skillful typographers. Their 
works, however, are so numerous, and their efforts so well 
known, as to render it unnecessary to do more than mention 
their names. Such men as the Aldi,* Frobenius, Plantinus, 
Operinus, the Stephani, the Elzeviri, the Gryphii, the Giunti, 
the Moreti, and hosts of peers, have universal fame. The 
printing-office of Plantinus, in the Place Vendredi, at Ant- 
werp, exists in its full integrity, and in the possession and 
use of his descendants the Moreti ; the same presses, the 
same types, with the addition of every improvement modern 
skill has effected, are still in use, and an inspection of these 
singular relics of olden art will well repay the investigation 
of the curious. 

THE FIUST PRESSES. 

Of the mechanical means by which these beautiful im- 
pressions of the old printers were produced there is little or 
no record ; but it is quite evident that they must have been 
effected by some more skillful process than mere manipula- 
tion, that is, than the appliance of a burnisher, as is evident 

executed west of the Mississippi was done at St. Louis, in 1808, by Jacob 
Hinkle. 

There had been a printing-press in Kentucky in 1786, and there was one 
in Tennessee in 1793— in Michigan in 1809— in Mississippi in 1810. Lou- 
isiana had a press immediately after her possession by the United States. 

Printing was done in Canada before the separation of the American Col- 
onies from the Mother Country. Halifax had a press in 1751, and Quebec 
boasted of a printing-ofiBce in 1764. — Sketch of the Origin and Progress of 
Printing, hy William T. Coggeshall—'NEWSFAFER Record. Lay Sf Brother. 
Philadelphia, 1857. 

* It should be mentioned that Aldus Manutius invented the beautiful 
character of type called Italic at the end of the fifteenth century. The 
first book printed with it is a Virgil, 1501. 



48 Five Black Arts. 

in the first wood-cuts, or of a roller, or superficial pressure 
applied immediately by hand. It is very probable that one 
of the difficulties which Gutenberg found insuperable at 
Strasburg, was the construction of a machine of sufficient 
power to take impressions of the types or blocks then em- 
ployed ; nor is it at all wonderful that the many years he re- 
sided at that city were insufficient to produce the requisite 
means ; for, with cutting type, forming his screws, inventing 
and making ink, and the means of applying his ink when 
made, his time must have been amply occupied. Moreover, 
the construction of a press would require a versatile genius, 
and excellent mechanical skill, not to be looked for in one 
man. But upon his junction with Fust and Schoeffer, the 
gold of the former, and the invention of all the three, would 
soon supply the defect; and, for aught that appears to the 
contrary, the press used in their office differed in no essential 
point from those in use until the improvements of Blaew in 
1600-20. Fortunately, amongst the singular devices with 
which it pleased the earlier printers to distinguish their 
works, Badius Ascensius of Lyons (1496-1535) chose the 
press ; and there are cuts of various sizes on the title-pages 
of his works. It appears from these, that, like that of Gut- 
enberg, they could print only four pages at a time, and that 
at two pulls ; the table and tympan ran in, and the platen 
was brought down by a powerful screw, by means of a lever 
inserted into the spindle. 

The color which the earliest typographers used was prob- 
ably made according to the style of work in hand. The 
earliest copies of the Speculum and Bihlia Pauperum were 
printed in a brown color, of which raw umber is the principal 
ingredient. It appears to have been well ground and thin. 
It was, most likely, of the same tint as the old drawings of 
the same subjects, and would be better adapted for the filling 
up in various colors, as appears to have been the practice, 
than a black and harsh outline of ink. Fust and Schoeffer, 
however, introduced, and their followers adopted, black ink, 
and were so skillful in compounding it that their works pre- 
sent a depth and richness of color which excites the envy of 
the moderns ; nor has it turned brown, or rendered the sur- 
rounding paper in the slightest degree dingy. The method 
of applying it to the types was by means of balls of skin 



Printing — History. 49 

stuffed with wool, in every respect the same as those used 
fifty years ago. The ink was laid in some thickness on a 
corner of a stone slab, and taken thence in small quantities 
and ground by a muUer, and thence again taken by the balls 
and applied to the types. The types appear to have been 
disposed in cases very much the same as ours. The com- 
posing-stick differs somewhat, but cannot now be very clearly 
made out. The different operations of casting the type, 
composing, reading, and working, are mostly represented in 
the same apartment ; but, it is probable, more for the sake of 
pictorial unity, than because such was really the custom. 
There must have been many workmen engaged in most of the 
old establishments ; and they well knew the value of cleanli- 
ness, which is unattainable where all the operations are car- 
ried on together. 

The general and original belief is that William Caxton, 
who for thirty years resided in the Low Countries, under the 
reign of Charles the Bold, and who had taken every oppor- 
tunity of learning the new art, and had availed himself of 
the capture of Mentz to secure one of the fugitive workmen 
of Fust and Schoeffer, established a printing-office at Cologne, 
where he printed the French original and his own translation 
of the Recuyell of the History es of Troye; that whilst at 
Cologne he became acquainted with Wynkyn de Worde, 
Theoderick Rood, both foreigners, and Thomas Hunte his 
countryman, who all subsequently became printers in Eng- 
land ; that be afterward transferred his materials to Eng- 
land ; that Wynkyn de Worde came over with him, and 
probably was the superintendent of his printing establish- 
ment; that his first press was established at Westminster, 
perhaps in one of the chapels attached to the abbey, and 
certainly under the protection of the abbot; and that he 
there produced the first book printed in England, the G-arne 
of Chess^ which was completed on the last day of March, 
1474. 

The correctness of these facts is not matter of dispute, all 
■writers agreeing that Caxton did so set up his press at West- 
minster, and print his Gfame of Chess in 1474 ; but it has 
been asserted that Caxton was not the first printer, nor his 
book the first book printed, in this country. Neither does 
the controversy rest upon the contradictory statements of 
4 



50 Five Black Arts. 

many writers, for all authors of the same and succeeding 
period agree in ascribing the honor to Caxton ; and when, in 
1642, a dispute arose between the Stationers' Company and 
certain persons who printed by virtue of a patent from the 
crown, concerning the validity of this patent, a committee 
was appointed, who heard evidence for and against the pe- 
titioners, and throughout the proceedings Caxton was ac- 
knowledged as incontestibly the first printer in England. 
Thus Caxton seemed to be established as the first English 
typographer, when, soon after the Restoration, a quarto vol- 
ume of forty-one leaves was discovered in the library at 
Cambridge, bearing the title of Exposicio Sancti Jeronymi 
in Symbolum Apostolorum ad Papam Laurentium, and at 
the end, " Explicit Exposicio Sancti Jeronymi in Simbolo 
Apostolorum ad papam Laurentium, Oxonie Et finita. Anno 
Domini m.cccc.lxviii. xvii. die decembris." Upon the pro- 
duction of this book the claim for priority of printing was set 
up for Oxford. In the year 1644 Richard Atkyns, who then 
enjoyed a patent from the crown, and whose claims conse- 
quently brought him into collision with the Stationers' Com- 
pany, and who was desirous of establishing the prerogative 
of the sovereign, published a thin quarto work, entitled The 
Original and (Jroivth of Printing^ collected out of the 
History and the Records of the Kingdome ; wherein is also 
demonstrated that Printing appertaineth to the Prerogative 
Royal, and is a Flower of the Crown of England. The 
book was published " hy order and appointment of the Right 
Hon. Mr. Secretary Morrice." In support of this proposition 
Atkyns asserted that he had received from an anonymous 
friend a copy of a manuscript discovered at Lambeth Pal- 
ace, amongst the archiepiscopal archives. The following is 
an abstract of this document: "Thomas Bouchier, arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, earnestly moved the king, Henry VI., 
to use all possible means to procure a printing mould, to 
which the king willingly assented, and appropriated to the 
undertaking the sum of 1500 merks, of which sum Bouchier 
contributed 800. Mr. Tumour, the king's master of the 
robes, was the person selected to manage the business ; and 
he, taking with him Mr. William Caxton, proceeded to Har- 
lem in Holland, where John Guthenberg had recently in- 
vented the art, and was himself personally at work ; their 



Printing — History. 51 

design being to give a considerable sum to any person who 
should draw away one of Guthenberg's workmen. With 
some difficulty they succeeded in purloining one of the under- 
workmen, Frederick Corsellis ; and it not being prudent to 
set him to work in London, he was sent under a guard to 
Oxford, and there closely watched until he had made good 
his promise of teaching the secrets of the art. Printing was 
therefore practiced in England before France, Italy, or Ger- 
many, which claims priority of Harlem itself, though it is 
known to be otherwise, that city gaining the art from the 
brother of one of the workmen, who had learned it at home 
of his brother, and afterward set up for himself at Mentz." 
The Exposicio is asserted by inference to be the work of 
Corsellis. That this document is a forgery may be safely 
assumed ; because of the more than unsatisfactory manner 
in which it is said to have been obtained ; because no one 
ever saw this copy ; because no one, except the unknown, 
ever saw the original, for it is not amongst the archives nor 
in the library of Lambeth Palace, nor was it when the Earl 
of Pembroke made diligent search for it in 17 — , nor was it 
found when the manuscripts, books, and muniments were 
moved into a new building ; because Caxton himself, who 
took so important a share in the alleged abduction of the 
workman, states that twelve years afterward he was dili- 
gently engaged in learning the art at Strasburg, and repeat- 
edly ascribes the invention to Gutenberg, " at Mogunce in 
Almayne ;" because, when three years afterward the Sta- 
tioners' Company instituted legal proceedings against the 
University of Cambridge, to restrain them from printing, 
this document was rejected, as resting only on Atkyns's au- 
thority ; because Archbishop Parker, in his account of Bour- 
chier, mentions the invention of printing at Mentz, but makes 
no claim for his having introduced it into England ; and 
Godwin, de Prcesulihus Angelice, says that Bourchier, during 
his primacy of thirty-two years, did nothing remarkable, save 
giving 1201. for poor scholars, and some books to the univer- 
sity, and that he minutely examined two registers of his pro- 
ceedings during this term, without making any mention of 
his having found therein any record of so remarkable a trans- 
action ; because, since these transactions must have taken 
place before 1459, Henry VI. was at that time struggling 



52 Five Black Arts. 

fearfully for his throne and life, Edward IV. being crowned 
in that year ; from internal evidence of the document itself, 
for, not to mention the weak evidence for the city of Harlem, 
it is quite certain that Gutenberg never printed there, and 
by Junius the theft is ascribed to John Fust, who certainly 
was a rich goldsmith of Mentz; whereupon Meerman, find- 
ing these statements at variance with possibility, boldly in- 
vents another theory, making the sufferers Roster's grand- 
sons, who never printed, as far as is known, and the robber 
Corsellis himself; and, lastly, because six years elapsed be- 
tween this asserted introduction and the publication of his 
Exposicio, and eleven years between this and any other pub- 
lication from any Oxford press. Although these facts en- 
tirely confute the pretensions of Corsellis, there nevertheless 
remains the book itself, and unless some evidence can be pro- 
duced, Oxford will still maintain the distinction of having 
printed the earliest book in England. Some of the most 
learned bibliographers entirely refuse their assent to the gen- 
uineness of the book. Middleton asserts that there must be 
an error of an x in the imprint, and produces many remark- 
able instances of similar typographical errors. This, how- 
ever, is mere assertion ; and, as in the Lambeth record, the 
best evidence is to be sought in the production itself ; ac- 
cordingly the work is printed with cast metal types, which 
are not proved to have been used by Koster at all, that art 
being invented by Gutenberg, Fust, and Schoeffer at May- 
ence. The letter is of very elegant cut, the pages regular, 
and the whole work has the appearance of having been exe- 
cuted at a considerably advanced era of the art. Another 
and a good argument is, that the work has signatures, or 
marks for the binder, at the foot of the page, which were not 
used on the Continent before 1472, by John Koelhoff at Co- 
logne. The evidence in favor of Caxton is direct and 
strong ; the date of the Oxford book is contradicted by in- 
ternal evidence, and discredited by the story set up in its 
support; there seems, therefore, no sufficient ground for 
withdrawing from Caxton the fame of being the introducer 
of printing into Engl and. ^ 

William Caxton was born about the year 1412, in the 
Weald of Kent. His father was a wealthy merchant, trad- 
ing in wool. He was brought up to the business of a mer- 



Printing — History. 53 

cer, and conducted himself so much to his master's satis- 
faction, that on his death he bequeathed him the then 
considerable sum of twenty marks. Caxton then proceeded, 
probably as the agent of the Mercers' Company, into the 
Low Countries. He must have been a man of some wealth 
and consideration, for in 1464 he and Richard Wethenhall 
were appointed by Edward IV. " embassadors and special 
deputies" to continue and confirm a treaty of commerce 
between him and Philip, duke of Burgundy ; and, upon the 
marriage of Edward's sister Margaret with Charles duke of 
Burgundy, he was appointed to the household retinue of the 
princess, by whom he appears to have been treated with 
much familiarity and confidence ; for at her instigation he 
first commenced his literary labors, and he mentions her as 
repeatedly commanding him to amend his English. His first 
work was a translation of the Recuyell of the Historyes of 
Troye, which he afterward printed at Strasburg, when his 
leisure had allowed him to turn his attention to the study of 
printing. The first production of his press is allowed to be 
the French Recuyell above mentioned, his second the Oracion 
of John Russell on Charles Duke of Burgundy being creat- 
ed a Knight of the Cfctrter, which took place in 1469. Of 
his transactions between 1471 and 1474 there is no record ; 
probably he was engaged in the diligent pursuit of the art, 
and preparing to transfer his materials to England, which he 
accomplished some time before 1477, when we find him print- 
ing in or near the Abbey of Westminster, of which Thomas 
Milling, bishop of Hereford, was at that time abbot. The 
first production of his English press was the Game of Chess, 
bearing date 1474, which work, however, some assert to 
have been printed by him at Cologne. His next production 
was the Rake of the hoole lyf of Jason; but his first book 
bearing date and place in the colophon is the Bictes and Say- 
ings of Philosophres, a translation from the French by the 
gallant Earl Rivers, " at Westmestre, the yere of our lord 
M.cccc.lxxvij." From this time he continued both to print 
and translate with great spirit. His " capital work " was a 
Book of the nolle Historyes of Kyng Arthur, in 1485, the 
most beautiful production of his press. 

There is but one copy of any of Caxton's works printed 
upon vellum ; it is the Boctrinal of Sapyenee. " Translated 



54 Five Black Arts. 

out of Frensshe in to Englysshe by wyllyam Caxton at "West- 
mestre. Fynyshed the vij day of May the yere of our lord 
M.cccc.lxxix. Caxton me fieri fecit." This unique copy is 
in the library at Windsor, and it is in beautiful preservation. 
It is moreover doubly unique, for it contains an additional 
chapter, to be found in no other copy whatever, and which 
is entitled " Of the negligencies happening in the Masse and 
of the Remedies. Cap. Ixiiij." It is a curious treatise of 
minute omissions and commissions likely to occur in the ser- 
vice of mass, with directions how to remedy such evils. Of 
their importance here are two specimens, " If by any neg- 
ligence fyl (fall) any of the blood of the Sacrament on the 
corporus, or upon any of the vestments, then ought to cut 
oflf the piece on which it is fallen, and ought well to be wash- 
en, and that piece to be kept with the other relics." " And 
if the body of Jesu Christ, or any piece, fall upon the pal^ 
of the altar, or upon any of the vestments that ben blessed, 
the piece ought not to be cut off on which it is fallen, but it 
ought right well to be washen, and the washing to be given 
to the ministers for to drink, or else drink it himself." This 
singular treatise finishes with this grave confession, " This 
chapitre to fore I durst not sett in the booke, by cause it is 
not convenient ne appertaining that every lay man should 
know it et cetera." 

The Eoyal Library possesses another work of Caxton, 
which, as a perfect copy, is also unique. This is the " Sub- 
tyl Historyes and Fables of Esope. Translated out of 
Frenshe in to Englyshe by Wyllyam Caxton at Westmynstre 
In the yere of our lord M cccc Ixxxiij Emprynted by the 
same the xxvj daye of Marche the yere of our lorde 
Mcccclxxxiiij And the fyrste yere of the regno of kyng 
Rycharde the thyrde." It consists of 142 leaves. Each 
fable is illustrated by a rude wood-cut, all of which are said 
to have been executed abroad, where similar editions of ^sop 
were frequently printed. They are, however, most probably 
copied ; for there is nothing either in their design or execu- 
tion that a most moderate artist might not perform ; and this 
will equally apply to other wood-cuts interspersed in Caxton's 
works. 

It has been said that the works of Caxton have been 
eagerly sought for by English bibliomaniacs. The most re- 



Printing — History. 65 

markable instances of this are the enormous prices given 
for some of them at the sale of the Duke of Roxburghe's 
library before mentioned. The Chastising of God's Chil- 
dren was knocked down to Earl Spencer for 14:61. The 
Sessions Papers were bought for the Society of Lincoln's 
Inn for SI 81. The Duke of Devonshire gave 351Z. 15s. for 
The 3Iirrour of the World, and 1801. for the Kalendayr of 
the Shyppers. Gower's Confessio Amantis produced 366Z.; 
The Boke of Chyvalry, 336Z. The llecuyell of the Sistoryes 
of Troye gave rise to a startling contest. It was the identi- 
cal copy presented by Caxton to Elizabeth Grey, queen of 
Edward IV. and sister of his patroness. " Sir Mark Sykes 
vigorously pushed on his courser till five hundred guineas 
were bidden ; he then reined in the animal, and turned him 
gently on one side ' toward the green sward.' More hun- 
dreds are offered for the beautiful Elizabeth Grey's own 
copy. The hammer vibrates at nine hundred guineas. The 
sword of the marquess is in motion, and he makes another 
thrust — ' One thousand pounds.' ' Let them be guineas,' 
said Mr. Ridgway, and guineas they were. The marquess 
now recedes. He is determined upon a retreat ; another 
such victory as the one he has just gained (the Valdarfar 
Boccaccio) must be destruction ; and Mr. Ridgway bears 
aloft the beauteous prize in question." (Dibdin.) At Mr. 
Willett's sale Tullius of Old Age produced 210/., and be- 
came the property of the Duke of Devonshire. 

Caxton must have been a man of wonderful perseverance 
and erudition, cultivated and enlarged by an extensive knowl- 
edge of books and the world. Of his industry and devoted- 
ness some idea may be formed, when Wynkyn de Worde, 
his successor, states, in his colophon to the Vitce Patrum, 
that Caxton finished his translation of that work from French 
into English on the last day of his life. He died in 1491, 
being about fourscore years of age. His epitaph has been 
thus written by some friend unknown : " Of your charite 
pray for the soul of Mayster Willyam Caxton, that in hys 
tyme was a man of moche ornate and moche renommed wys- 
dome and connynge, and decesed full crystenly the yere of 
our Lord mcccclxxxxi. 

Moder of Merci shyld him from thorribul fynd, 
And bryng hym to lyff eternal that neuer hath ynd." 



56 Five Black Arts. 

The type used by Caxton is in design very inferior to that 
used upon the Continent even earlier than his period ; but 
in the latter part of his life he very materially improved his 
fonts, and some of his later productions are very elegantly 
cut. The design is peculiar to him, and is said to be in 
imitation of his own handwriting ; it bears, however, some 
resemblance to the types of Ulric Zell, from whom Caxton 
derived most of his instruction, and is something between 
Secretary and CfotJdc. He appears to have had two fonts 
of English, three fonts of Cfreat Primer, one Double Pica, 
and one Long Primer* He used very few ornamented 
initial letters, and those he did employ are very inferior in 
elegance to those of foreign printers. He preferred insert- 
ing a small capital letter within a large space, and leaving 
the interval to be filled up according to the taste of the 
illuminator, owing to which many excellent performances are 
destitute of these beautiful ornaments. Caxton's ink was 
not remarkable for depth of color or richness ; his paper was 
excellent ; and he probably used presses of the same con- 
struction as the continental printers. His works are not very 
rare, but are highly prized by English collectors. Copies of 
one or more of his works are to be found in most collections 
of any pretension, and are well worthy of inspection. The 
number of his productions is sixty-two. Although Caxton 
was the first Enghsh printer, he was not the only one of his 
day, Wynkyn de Worde, Lettou and Machlinia, Hunte, 
Pyuson, the Oxford printer whoever he may have been, and 
he of St. Alban's, being his cotemporaries. 

Wynkyn de Worde came, as we have already seen, 
from Germany with Caxton, and remained with him in the 
superintendence of his office until the day of his death, when 
he succeeded to the business. He was a native of Lorraine, 
and evidently a man of considerable information and taste, 
and of great spirit in the conduct of his affairs. After his 
succession to Caxton's business, he carried on in the same 
premises for about six years, when he removed to the " Sygn 
of the Sonne in flete strete, against the condyth." De 
Worde appears to have immediately commenced a complete 
renovation of the art, cutting many new fonts of all sizes, 

* These are terms by which modern printers distinguish the sizes of their 
type. 



Printing — History. 57 

•with vast improvement of the design and proportion ; he 
moreover provided his cotemporaries, then becoming very 
numerous, with type ; and it is even said that some of the 
letter used by the English printers less than a century ago 
are from his matrices, nay, that the punches are still in exist- 
ence. He was the first (or Pynson) to introduce Roman 
letters into England, which he made use of amongst his 
Gothic to distinguish any thing remarkable, in the same man- 
ner as Italic is used in the present day. His works amount 
to the extraordinary number of four hundred and eight. 
" His books are, in general, distinguished by neatness and 
elegance, and are always free from professed immorality. 
The printer has liberally availed himself of such aid as could 
be procured from the sister art of engraving ; although it 
must be confessed that by far the greater, if not the whole, 
number of wood-engravings at this period are of foreign exe- 
cution ; nor is it without a smile that the typographical anti- 
quary discovers the same cut introduced into works of a 
directly opposite nature." 

In his Instruction for Pilgrims to the Holy Land, printed 
in 1623, the text of which is in Roman, and the marginal 
notes in Italics, he makes the first use in England of Greek, 
which is in movable type, of Arabic and Hebrew, which are 
cut in wood ; and the author complains that he is obliged to 
omit a third part, because the printer had no Hebrew types. 
Appended to the work are three Latin epistles, in which he 
makes use of Arabic. 

His works are, of course, not so rare as those of his pre- 
decessor, but are nevertheless much sought after ; and, when 
sold by the side of the Caxtons at the Duke of Roxburghe's 
sale, produced large prices. BartJiolomceus de Proprieta- 
tibus Perurn, the first book printed on paper made in Eng- 
land, was bought by the Duke of Devonshire for 101. Is. 
Chaucer's Troylus and Cresseide, 43?.; Hawys's Pxemple of 
Vertu, 601. ; Passetyme of Pleasure, 81Z. ; Castell of 
Pleasure, 61Z.; The Moste Pytefid Systorye of the Nolle 
Appolyon, Kynge of Thyre, 1101. 

De Worde died about the year 1534. In his will, still in 
the Prerogative Office, dated 5th June, 1534, he bequeaths 
many legacies of books to his friends and servants, with 
minute directions for payment of small creditors and for- 



58 Five Black Arts. 

giveness of debtors, betokening a conscientious and kindly 
disposition. His device is generally that of Caxton, Avith 
his own name added to the bottom ; but he also used a much 
more complicated one, consisting of fleurs-de-lis, lions pas- 
sant, portcullis, harts, roses, and other emblazonments of the 
later Plantagenets and the Tudors. 

John Lettou and William Machlinia printed separately 
and jointly before the death of Caxton, but were very inferi- 
or to him in every respect ; their type being most especially 
barbarous. Their works are not very numerous, and are 
principally upon legal subjects ; they printed the first edition 
of Lyttleton's Tenures. 

Richard Pynson was a Norman by birth, and studied 
the art of printing under his " worshipful master William 
Caxton." It would seem that he was an earlier printer than 
Wynkyn de Worde, having established an office before the 
death of Caxton. His first work is of date 1493, and was 
printed " at the Temple-har of London" He enjoyed high 
patronage, and was appointed by Henry YII, to be his 
printer before 1503. He is perhaps inferior to De Worde 
as a typographer, his first types being extremely rude. He 
afterward used a font of De Worde's, and another peculiar 
to himself in this country, probably imported from France. 
Some of his larger works, Fabian's Chronicle, Lord Berner's 
translation of Froissart (which are the first editions of these 
important additions to English literature), and some of his 
law-works, are very fine specimens of the art. His device 
■was a curious compound of R and P, on a shield which is 
sometimes supported by two naked figures. 

Richard Grafton claims especial notice. He was by 
trade a grocer, although of good family. Of his education 
nothing appears ; but he was one of the most voluminous au- 
thors of his time, having, by his own account, written a con- 
siderable portion of Hall's Chronicles, an Abridgment of 
the Chronicles of England, and a Manual of the same, a 
Chronicle at Large, and other books of historical character, 
under what circumstances is not known. In 1637 Grafton 
published Thomas Mathew's translation of the Bible, which 
was printed abroad, but where is not satisfactorily ascertained ; 
and in 1688 the Testament translated by Miles Coverdale, 
which was printed at Paris by Francis Regnault. At this 



Printing — History. 59 

time it would not appear that English printers were in high 
estimation ; for Lord Cromwell, desirous of having the Bible 
in the English language, thought it necessary to procure 
from Henry YIII. letters to the king of France for license 
to print it at Paris, and urged Bonner to tender his earnest 
assistance. Bonner entered upon the undertaking with such 
zeal, that in recompense he was soon afterward appointed 
to the bishopric of Hereford. Miles Coverdale had charge 
of the correctness (see his letter, Gent.'s Mag. 1791), and 
Richard Grafton and Edward Whitchurch were the proprie- 
tors ; but under what arrangement does not appear. When 
the work was on the point of completion, the Inquisitors of 
the Faith interfered, seized the sheets, and Grafton, Whit- 
church, and Coverdale were compelled to make precipitate 
flight. The avarice of the lieutenant-criminal induced him 
to sell the sheets for waste paper instead of destroying them, 
and they were in part repurchased. Under the protec- 
tion of Cromwell they next, after many difficulties, ob- 
tained their types and other materials from Paris, and the 
Bible was completed at London in 1539. " Thus they be- 
came printers themselves, which before this affair they never 
intended." The edition consisted of 2500 copies. Crom- 
well next procured for them a privilege (not an exclusive 
one, however) for printing the Scriptures for five years. 
Very shortly after the death of Lord Cromwell, Grafton was 
imprisoned for printing Mathew's Bible and the Great Bible, 
his former friend Bonner much exaggerating the case against 
him. The prosecution, however, was not followed up ; but 
in a short time he was, with Whitchurch, appointed printer to 
Prince Edward, with special patents for printing all church- 
service books and primers. The document is curious. It 
recites that such " bookes had been prynted by strangiers in 
other and strange countreys, partely to the great losse and 
hynderance of our subjects, who both have the sufficient arte, 
feate and treade of prynting, and partely to the setting 
forthe the bysshopp of Eome's usurped auctoritie, and ke- 
ping the same in contynuall memorye ;" and that, therefore, 
of his " grace especiall, he had granted and geven the priv- 
ilege to our wel-biloved subjects Richard Grafton and Ed- 
ward Whitchurch, citezeins of London," exclusive liberty to 



60 Five Black Arts. 

print all such books for seven years, upon pain of forfeiture 
of all such books printed elsewhere. 

One Richard Grafton, supposed to be the above, was mem- 
ber of parliament for the city of London in 1553-5-4, and 
also in 1556-57, and in 1562 was member for Coventry. 
He is supposed to have died about 1572, and not in very 
affluent circumstances. He used a punning, or, as the her- 
alds would call it, a canting device, of a young tree or graft 
growing out of a tun. His works are distinguished for their 
beauty, and are very numerous and costly. He was one of 
the most careful and meritorious of English printers. 

These are the titles of a few of his early Bibles, etc. 

The Byble, 1537, folio. " The Byble, which is all the 
holy Scripture : In whych are contayned the Olde and 
Newe Testament truly and purely translated into Englysh 
by Thomas Mathew. Esaye 1 Jl^^" Hearcken to ye heauens, 
and thou earth geaue eare : For the Lorde speaketh, 
M.D.xxxvii." The title of the New Testament is, " The 
newe Testament of our sauyor Jesu Christ, newly and dyly- 
gently translated into Englyshe, with Annotacions in the 
Mergent to help the Eeader to the vnderstandyng of the 
Texte." This was printed in France. 

The New Testament, Latin and English. 1538. Octavo. 
"The new testament both in Latin and English after the 
vulgare texte ; which is red in the churche. Translated and 
corrected by Myles Couerdale : and prynted in Paris, by 
Fraunces Regnault. M. ccccc. xxxviii in Nouembre. 
Prynted for Richard Grafton and Edward Whitchurch, cyt- 
ezens of London. Cum gratia & priuilegio regis." 

The Byble in Englysshe. 1539. Folio. " The Byble 
in Englyshe, that is to saye the content of all the holy Scryp- 
ture, bothe of y^ olde, and newe testament, truly translated 
after the veryte of the Hebrue and Greke textes, by y^ dyly- 
gent studye of dyuerse excellent learned men, expert in the 
forsayde tongues. Prynted hy Bychard Qrafton^ and Ed- 
ward Whitchurche. Cum priuilegio — solum. 1539." This 
is a very superb book, and is the one which was commenced 
at Paris and finished at London under the circumstances be- 
fore related. 

Newe Testament in Englysshe. 1540. Quarto. 



Printing — History. 61 

" Translated after the texte of Master Erasmus of Rotero- 
dame." 

The Prymer. English and Latin. 1540. Octavo. 

The Byble in Englysiie. 1540. Folio. A noble 
volume, called, from the preface, Cranmer's Byble. 

The Byble in Englyshe. 1541. Folio. "The Bj- 
ble in Englyshe of the largest and greatest volume, aucto- 
rised and appojnted by the commaundement of oure moost 
redoubted prynce and soueraygne Lorde, Kynge Henrye the 
VIII, supreme head of this his churche and realme of Eng- 
lande : to be frequented and vsed in euery Churche within 
this his sayd realme, accordyng to the tenoure of hys former 
Jniunctions geuen in that behalfe. Ouersene and perused at 
the comaundement of the kynges hyghnes, by the ryght reu- 
erend fathers in God Cuthbert byshop of Duresme, and 
Nicholas, bisshop of Rochester." The lines of the title are 
printed alternately red and black. 

Such, with many other manuals, primers, etc., were the 
productions of this most eminent British typographer. 

The first complete edition of Shakspeare's plays was 
printed by Isaac Jaggard and Edward Blount, in folio, in 
1623. Of his single plays, the earliest is " The first part 
of the Contention betwixt the two famous Houses of Yorke 
and Lancaster," which was printed by " Thomas Creed for 
Thomas Millington, and are to be sold at his shop, under 
Saint Peter's Church, Cornwall" (Cornhill), in 1594. 
These plays were printed by various typographers, amongst 
whom appear the names of George Eld, Valentine Simmes, 
R. Young, John Robson, and others who only give their ini- 
tials. 

The first edition of Milton's Paradise Lost was printed in 
quarto by Peter Parker in the year 1667 ; the Paradise 
Regained in 1671. 

During the troublesome times that preceded the great re- 
bellion, the Puritans, jealously watched and persecuted, 
introduced the anomaly of ambulatory presses, which were 
constantly removed from town to town to escape the vigilance 
of the Star Chamber. At these presses many of Milton's 
controversial pamphlets were printed ; and it is even said that 
the identical press at which the Areopagitica was printed is 



62 Five Black Arts. 

still in existence, and was lately in the possession of Mr. 
Valpj, the well-known printer of the Variorum Classics. 

It is a very pleasing reflection, that the earlier practition- 
ers of the art did, by their uniform good character and relig- 
ious turn, tend much to render their profession productive of 
a highly moral class of literature, and to raise it in the esti- 
mation of all men. Had they been less respectable, had 
they turned their attention to the many ribald and tasteless 
writings of those times, the effect of the new art would have 
been to degrade literature and lower morals, to delay the 
spread of knowledge, and to give a depression to the charac- 
ter of the art and its practitioners, from which possibly they 
might never have recovered. These excellent and learned 
men appear to have received their temporal reward, in public 
estimation, sufficient wealth, and a length of years beyond 
the ordinary term of mortality. 

Setting aside the claim of Corsellis, printing was first 
practiced at Oxford by Theoderic Rood and Thomas Hunte 
from 1480 to 1485. In Rymer, vol. xv. is a grant by Queen 
Elizabeth to Thomas Cooper, clerk of Oxford, for the exclu- 
sive printing of his Latin Dictionary. In 1585 a printing- 
press was established at the expense of the Earl of Leicester, 
chancellor of the university. Joseph Barnes was appointed 
printer to the university in 1585. 

At Cambridge John Siberch printed in 1521, when Eras- 
mus resided there, and probably executed some of his books. 
Thomas Thomas, M.A., was the printer to the university in 
1584. 

At Sr. Alban's printing was very early practiced, certainly 
in the year 1480. It would appear that the printer was a 
schoolmaster. It has been asserted, but without shadow of 
argument, that printing was introduced here many years be- 
fore Caxton. 

Printing was not introduced into Scotland till thirty years 
after Caxton had set up his press at Westminster. Under 
the patronage of James IV., who was a zealous encourager 
of learning and the useful arts, Walter Chepman and Andro 
Myllar established the first printing-press at Edinburgh, as 
appears by a royal privilege granted to them in 1507.* 

* "James, &c. To al and sindrj our officiaris legis and subdittis quham 
it eflferis, quhais knawlage thir oun lettres ealcnm greting ; Wit ye that 



Printing — History. 63 

The only publications known to have issued from the press 
of Myllar and Chepman are a collection of pamphlets, chiefly 
metrical Romances and ballads, in 1508, of "which an imper- 
fect copy is preserved in the Advocates' Library ;* and the 
Scottish Service Book, including the Legends of the Scot- 
tish Saints, commonly called the Breviary of Aberdeen, in 
1509.t 

It is difficult to account for the discontinuance of printing 
in Scotland for about twenty years after this time ; probably 
the disastrous events at the close of the reign of James IV. 
may have contributed to render it an unprofitable trade ; but 
in its revival by Davidson there was no deterioration, either 
in the magnitude and importance of the works attempted, or 
in the mode in which the mechanical part was executed. It 
was probably about the year 1536 that he printed, in a black- 
letter folio, " The History and Croniklis of Scotland, compilet 
and newly correkit be the Reuerend and Noble Gierke Mais- 
ter Hector Boece. Translatit laitly be Maister Johne Bel- 
lenden. Imprentit in Edinburgh be Thomas Davidson, dwell- 
ing foment the Frere "VVynd ;" and in 1540 he printed the 
whole works of Sir David Lindsay. 

Davidson was succeeded by Lekprevik, Vautrollier, and 
others ; but none were distinguished as printers till the time 
of Ruddiman. 

forsamekill as our lovittis servitouris "Walter Chepman and Andro Millar, 
burgessis of our burgh of Edinburgh, has at our instance and request, for 
our plesour, the honour and profiBt of our Realms and lieges, takin on thame 
to furnis and bring hame ane prent, with all stuff belangand tharto, and 
expert men to use the samyne, for imprenting -within our Realme of the 
bukis of our Lawis, actis of parliament, croniclis, mess bukis, and portuus 
efter the use of our Realme, with addicions and legendis of Scottis Sanctis, 
now gaderit to be ekit tharto, and al utheris bukis that salbe sene necessar, 
and to sel the samniyn for competent pricis, be our avis and discrecioun 
thair labouris and expens being considerit," etc. 

" Geven under our priv Sel at Edinburgh the xv day of September, and 
of our Regne the xx*^ yer." 

* These pamphlets were reprinted in a handsome quarto volume, edited 
by Mr. David Laing. The preface contains much accurate information 
regarding early printing in Scotland. 

t Of this Service Book, which forms two volumes octavo, handsomely 
printed with red and black letter, in the years 1509 and 1510, a beauti- 
ful copy is preserved in the University Library of Edinburgh. As the 
name and device of Walter Chepman occur in the work, without any men- 
tion being made of his partner, we are led to the conclusion that Andro 
Myllar, if then alive, had relinquished his share in the concern. 



64 Five Black Arts. 

A mere catalogue of printers would afford little amuse- 
ment and less instruction ; especially since the productions 
of the English press, save in the works of the printers above 
named, not only exhibited no advance, but even much deteri- 
oration, in most requisites of good printing. Indeed, to so 
low a point had the art fallen, and so little spirit was exhibited 
by English typographers, that the regeneration was left to 
an alien, whose perception of the inferiority and capacity of 
improvement at once raised the art to the level of the finest 
productions of Bodoni and Barbou. 

This was John Baskerville, a japanner of Birmingham, 
who, having realized a considerable fortune, turned his at- 
tention to cutting punches for type, and succeeded in pro- 
ducing a series of fonts of remarkable beauty, so excellently 
proportioned, and standing so well, that the best of modern 
type-founders (and this seems the Augustan age of type- 
founding) have done no more than vary the proportions and 
refine the more delicate lines and strokes. Added to this, 
his press-work is of most excellent quality ; his paper the 
choicest that could be procured ; and his ink has a richness 
of tone, the mode of producing which has died with him. 
The works of Baskerville are amongst the choicest that can 
adorn a library. He died in 1775. His types and punches 
were purchased to print the splendid edition of Voltaire's 
works at Paris. He was worthily succeeded by Bulmer, 
whose magnificent Shakspeare and Milton are amongst the 
most superb books ever issued from the press, and, with 
Macklin's Bible and Ritchie's, Bensly's Hume, and other 
works, may be fearlessly produced to win for this country the 
palm of fine printing ; whilst in Scotland, Thomas Ruddiman 
and the two FouLis may challenge the prize of classical ty- 
pography from Aldus and the Stephani. Indeed, the larger, 
Greek types of the Foulis are without parallel for grandeur, 
their press-work is beautiful, and their correctness beyond 
all praise. 

Modern printers, with all their faults, are not degenerate 
successors of these worthies. The works from present offices 
that make pretensions to fine printing need not be ashamed 
of comparison with these chefs-d'oeuvres; whilst, from the vast 
improvements in the mechanism of the art in all its branches, 
paper, presses, ink, type, and other adjuncts, the average of 



PRINTING. ] 



[ Platb 1. 



TTPPER CASE. 



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Figl. 




Printing — Practical. 65 

the printing of the present day is infinitely superior to that of 
the last century. But in what relates to practical skill, cor- 
rectness, taste, and diligence, we cannot hope to excel, though 
we may perhaps equal, these departed masters. 

PRACTICAL PRINTING. 

The first operation when the new font* has entered the 
doors of the printing-office, is to lay it in the cases (fig. 1). 
These are always in pairs ; the upper case being divided into 
equal spaces or boxes; the part on the left of the broader di- 
vision being appropriated to CAPITAL letters, figures, di- 
seresis vowels, particular sorts, etc. ; that on the right to 
SMALL CAPITALS, accented letters, and references. The let- 
ters and figures are arranged in alphabetical and numerical 
order, from left to right. The loiver case is divided into un- 
equal portions, according to the average occurrence of the 
particular letters ; for the compositor (the workman whose 
duty it is to lay the font, and afterward to place together or 
compose the separate types into words) never looks at the face 
of the letter he picks up, but unhesitatingly plunges his 
fingers into any box, being sure that the letter he picks out 
thence is the one to which that box is appropriated, and con- 
sequently the one he requires. As there is no external 
mark or guide attached to the different boxes to denote the 
letters they contain, a stranger is not a little surprised and 
jmzzled at the eccentric movements of the workman's hand. 
Accordingly, it will be observed, upon looking at fig. 1, that 
the letter e has a box one-half larger than c, d, m, n, h, u, 
t, i, s, 0, a, r ; and these are twice the size of b, 1, v, k, f, 
g, y, p, w, or the comma ; and. four times the size of z, x, j, 
q, or the [] crotchets, full points, etc. These boxes are not 
arranged in alphabetical order, but those of most frequent 
occurrence are placed about the middle of the case to dimin- 
ish the distance the hands of the compositor have to travel 
in picking up and receiving the types. There are also other 
pairs of cases similarly arranged for the italic letters. The 

* A font is any weight of type of the same body and face, consisting 
of every letter, stop, figure, etc., in certain proportions, as stated on page 66, 
together with spaces and quadrats. 

5 



66 Five Black Arts. 

following are the proportions of some of the letters in a font 
of pica* of 800 lbs. weight : 

Capitals, from 400 to 600 of each, but of J 80, and Q, X and Z, 180. 

Small capitals, from 150 to 300 of each, excepting j, q, x and z, which, as 
in the capitals, are reduced in number. 

a 8,500 b 1,600 j 400 z 200 

e 12.000 c 3,000 k 800 &, 200 

i 8,000 d 4,000 m 3,000 , 4,500 

o 8,000 f 2,500 n 8,000 . 2,000 
u 3,400 h 6,400 q 500 

In a whole font there are about 150,000 letters, spaces, 
and figures. 

The compositor, having placed his copy upon a part of the 
upper case little used, and having received the necessary di- 
rections, takes up an instrument called a eomiJosing-sHck 
(fig. 2), (which, as well as the way of holding it and its use, 
will be better understood by reference to the drawing than 
by description), and sliding the inner movable portion wider 
or closer according to the desired width of the page, he fast- 
ens it with a screw ; he then cuts a piece of brass rule to fit 
in easily between the end of the stick and slide, and which is 
called the setting-rule^ This rule causes the letters to slip 
down without any obstruction from the screw-holes of the 
stick, or the nicks which serve to distinguish one font from 
another and enable the compositor, by turning them out- 
outward, to place the letters in their proper position. He 
then reads the first few words of his copy, takes first a capi- 
tal letter from the upper case, the succeeding letters from the 
lower case, and at the conclusion of the word a space^ which 
is merely the shank of a letter without any face, and not so 
high as a letter by about one-fourth part ; and therefore, not 
receiving the ink, forms the blank space between words ; but 
sometimes, through carelessness, it is allowed to stand up, in 
which case it is a fearful blotch upon a fair page, and must 
have been observed by most readers. He then proceeds with 
his next word, which will probably consist of lower case 
letters only ; and so on until he has arrived at the end of his 
line. It is most likely, however, that the words he has oc- 
casion to compose, with the necessary spaces, will not fill up 

* This is pica. 



Feinting — PfiACTiCAL. 6T 

the exact width of the line, and that there will be sometimes 
too much, sometimes too little room, for getting in the whole 
or part of the next word. In this case he has to consider 
whether it will be better to crowd the line and get in the 
word or syllable, or make the line more open and take it over 
to the next line ; his care being that his matter, when com- 
posed, shall not look too open or too close. Having decided, 
he takes out the spaces he has inserted, and puts in their 
stead others of greater or less width, as the case may require, 
in such a manner that on the face of the line being touched, 
it shall not feel loose, or require any particular pressure to 
force down the last letter into its proper place. This being 
accomplished in an artist-like manner, he takes out his setting- 
rule and places it in front of his line, and with a gentle press- 
ure of his thumb forces both back into the composing-stick : 
he then proceeds in a similar manner with other lines until 
his stick is full, when, placing it upon 21. frame on which the 
cases rest, his setting-rule being in front, he lifts his lines out 
of the stick and places them upon a proper instrument called 
a galley. If, however, the matter is to be leaded^ that is, if the 
lines of types are to be more apart than usual, the process 
is a little different. The compositor then has before him a 
quantity of pieces of metal called leads, of the exact width 
of the page, only one-fourth, one-sixth, or one-eighth of the 
body of the type, and not higher than spaces. After com- 
posing a line, before moving his setting-rule, he takes one or 
more of these and places it before the line ; he then takes 
out the setting-rule, and proceeds as above described. Hav- 
ing thus gone on until a considerable quantity of matter is 
composed, the compositor next makes it up into pages, and 
then into sheets. First, taking by portions as many lines of 
his matter as are to be contained in a page, he adds thereto 
at the bottom a line of quadrats, which are of the same height 
as spaces but much larger, varying in length from one to four 
m's, and places at the top the folio of the page and the run- 
ning liead or line which indicates the title of the work or the 
subject of the page or chapter, and then adds such leads or 
other things as may be necessary ; taking care that in the first 
page he places the signature (a letter of the alphabet intended 
for a guide to the binder, because by keeping this always out- 
side, and the second signature on the next leaf, he cannot fold 



68 Five Black Arts. 

the sheet -wrong). He next ties it tightly round with page- 
cord, and places it upon a piece of coarse paper. Having 
made up as many pages as the sheet consists of, viz., four if 
folio, eight if 4to, sixteen if 8vo, he next lays them down 
upon the imposing-table* (a large plate of iron screwed on 
to a frame) in the necessary order. This is, to a stranger, a 
very curious arrangement ; they appear to him to be placed 
at random, without any design or fixed rule, and as they are 
necessarily laid down in two divisions, one for each side of the 
sheet, one is of consequence the very reverse of the other. 
He may easily instruct himself, however : for if he take a 
sheet of paper and fold it into any required size, marking the 
folios with a pencil, and then open it without cutting, he will 
find they fall in curious irregularity. The pages are laid down 
on the table reverse of the order they have on the paper ; for 
it must be remembered that every type and every page is like 
a seal, the reverse of the impression it leaves ; consequently, 
were the pages laid down as on the marked paper, viz., the 
first page on the right hand, it would, in type, be at the ex- 
treme left, and so on. The schemes (figs. 3 and 4) of the 
laying down or imposition of forms, will give some idea of 
the apparent confusion of this process. 

The pages being correctly laid down upon the imposing- 
table, the compositor removes the papers from mider them, 
and next takes in both hands a chase (a frame of iron divided 
by cross-bars into four compartments, the inner angles of 
which are made rectangular with much care) and places it 
over them ; and then having ascertained the size of the paper 
to be used, adjusts pieces of wood or metal, cdXledi furniture , 
between them. Within the chase, but next to the pages, he 
places other pieces of wood or iron called side and foot sticks, 
which are rather wider at one end than the other, and between 
these and the chase small pieces of wood, which decrease in 
width in the same proportion as the side-stick, and which are 
called quoins. He now takes off the cords from the pages, 
and, as he removes each cord, he tightens the adjacent 

* A large slab of marble or stone is used for this purpose ; but it is liable 
to split, and to have its smooth surface indented. A plate of iron turned 
into a lathe is now very generally substituted in England, but the marble 
is commonly in use in America. 



PRINTING. ] 



[ Plate 2. 




I'KOOl' PHEaS. 



Printing — Practical. 69 

quoins that the letters at the sides of the pages may not slip 
down. When all the pages are untied, and the quoins 
pushed up with his finger and thumb, he planes down the 
pages gently with a ijlaner (a piece of beech perfectly plane 
and smooth on the face, about 9 inches long, 4j inches wide, 
and 2 inches thick), to prevent any of the letters from stand- 
ing up. With a sliooting-stick (which formidably-named 
weapon is merely a piece of hard wood,* a foot in length, an 
inch and a half in width, and half an inch in thickness) and 
a mallet he forces the quoins toward the thicker ends of the 
side and foot sticks, which consequently act as gradual and 
most powerful wedges, forcing the separate pieces of type to 
become a compact and almost united body, so that, the pages 
being securely locked up and again planed down, the whole 
mass, consisting of many thousand letters, may be lifted en- 
tire from the table. This united mass is called a form; 
that one which contains the first page being called the outer 
form, the other the inner (fig. 5). 

The compositor is paid by the number of thousands of 
letters he composes, which is thus ascertained : The letter 
m, being on a shank which is supposed to have its four sides 
parallel and equal, is taken as the standard ; he ascertains 
how many m's the page is in length, including the running 
head and the white line at the bottom ; that is, in fact, how 
many lines of the particular type used there would be in a 
page of the given size, supposing it were all solid type ; next, 
, how many m's (laid on their side) it is in width, that is, 
how many times the letter m would be repeated in a line of 
the given length were it to consist of nothing but m's so laid. 
This latter sum is then doubled, because experience shows 
that the average width of the letters is one-half of the depth, 
or one-half of that of the letter m. The length of the page 
is then multiplied by the product of this doubled width, then 
by the number of pages in the sheet, and the result will give 
the average number of letters in the sheet. This will be 
much better understood by the following casting-up of a 
sheet of 8vo in pica : 

* Iron or gun-metal is now generally substituted, as being more durable. 



70 Five Black Arts. 



Number of m's long 47 

m's wide, 24 X 2 48 

376 



2256 
Number of pages in a sheet of 8vo 16 

13536 
2256 

36096 

The compositor therefore is paid for composing 36,000 let- 
ters ; for the odd figures are dropped, unless they amount 
to or exceed 500, when they are paid for as if they com- 
pleted another 1000. If the sheet be of solid type, of the 
ordinary size, the price paid in London is sixpence per 1000 
letters; if in the small type called minion, sixpence far- 
thing; in nonpareil,* sevenpence ; in pearl, eightpence. If 
the Avork be composed from print copy, the price is three 
farthings per 1000 less than it would be paid if the copy 
were manuscript. If, however, the type be leaded, the 
price is a farthing per 1000 less for fonts above pearl. If 
the work is to be stereotyped, and high spaces are used, it 
is subject to an additional charge of a farthing per 1000 ; if 
low spaces, of a half-penny per 1000. Works in foreign lan- 
guages, in type of the ordinary size and character, are paid 
one half-penny per 1000 more, and three farthings per 1000 
more in the smaller. Greek, with leads and without accents, 
eightpence three farthings ; with accents, tenpence farthing, 
is eightpence half-penny per 1000 ; without leads or accents, 
Hebrew, Arabic, Syriac, etc., are paid double. f The com- 

* This is nonpareil. 

t Iq 1804, after a protracted litigation before the Court of Session, the 
journeymen compositors of Edinburgh succeeded in obtaining the sanction 
of the Court for an advance of one penny per thousand letters, or, upon an 
average, about one-fourth on the prices of their work. The grounds upon 
which the Court rested this decision were, that the wages were much too 
low ; that they had remained for forty years unaltered, whilst the price of 
the necessaries of life had very much increased ; and although it was proper 
to avoid a rise of wages which might lead to idleness, yet it was equally 
necessary to place the workmen upon a respectable footing, so as to enable 
them to do their work properly, and also to encourage them in cultivating 
and acquiring that degree of literature by which the public must infallibly 
be benefited ; and that, the fair criterion was, to make the wages of Edin- 
burgh bear the same proportion to those of London which they did in the 



Printing — Practical 71 

positor, it appears, must therefore pick up 72,000 letters be- 
fore he can receive an ordinary week's wages, must make up 
his matter into pages and impose them, and, moreover, cor- 
rect all the blunders mischance or carelessness may have 
occasioned, with great expenditure of time also in many 
other particulars ; but, as is hereafter described, he must 
have previously placed every one of these 72,000 into the 
appropriate boxes whence he has withdrawn them in compo- 
sition. Now it is usually reckoned that this latter operation, 
called distributing^ occupies one-fourth of a compositor's 
time, and the other operations another fourth ; he has there- 
fore only one -half of his time for composition ; consequently 
he must pick up letters at the rate of 144,000 per week, 
24,000 per day, or 2000 per hour. His rapidity of motion 
is therefore wonderful, and the exertion is so long continued, 
that the business, although apparently a light one, is in fact 
extremely laborious. 

The number of thousands of letters in a sheet necessarily 
varies with the size of the type, width and length of the page, 
and the number of the pages. The example above given is 
the casting-up of an octavo sheet of pica solid, the page be- 
ing of moderate size ; a similar sheet of brevier* would con- 
tain 81,000 letters, and the cost of composing it would be 21. 
Qs. 6d Single tables, forming one uninterrupted mass of type, 
will sometimes contain 250,000 letters ; and the labor of the 
compositor being very great in getting them up, he is paid 
double. Consequently the cost of composing such a table in 
pearl or diamond § would be not less than 16Z. 13s. 6c?., with- 
out extra charges. Yet this large number of types, by the 

year 1785, before the London prices were raised. That a court of law, 
whose province it it not to legislate, hut to apply and enforce existing stat- 
utes, should have entertained a question regarding the price of labor, for 
the regulation of which there not only existed uo law, but which had never 
been deemed a fit subject for legislative interfereuce, appears to be a very 
singular incident in the history of judicial procedure. The prices thus fix- 
ed, however (namely, ild. per 1000 for book-work, with an additional half- 
penny if nonpareil, and a penny if pearl, and b\d. for law-papers and jobs), 
being regarded as not unreasonable, have ever since been adhered to by 
every respectable establishment in Edinburgh. The price for composition 
in New York and other American cities averages 25 cents per thousand. 
Compositors at night and on rule and figure work are paid extra. 
* This is brevier. 



72 Five Black Arts. 

power of the wedge-formed side and foot sticks and quoins, 
is compressed into so solid a mass that it can be moved 
without much danger of disruption. 

The sheet being now imposed, an impression is taken 
called a proof, which is carried down to the reader, who 
having folded the proof in the necessary manner, first looks 
over the signatures, next ascertains whether the sheet com- 
mences with the right signature and folio, and then sees that 
the folios follow in order. He now looks over the running 
heads, inspects the proof to see that it has been imposed in 
the proper furniture, that the chapters are numbered rightly, 
and that the directions given have been correctly attended 
to, marking whatever he finds wrong. Having carefully 
done this, he places the proof before him, with the copy at 
his left hand, and proceeds to read the proof over with the 
greatest care, referring occasionally to the copy when neces- 
sary, correcting the capitals or italics, or any other peculiar- 
ities, noting continually whether every portion of the com- 
position has been executed in a workmanlike manner ; and 
having fully satisfied himself upon these and all technical 
points, he calls his reading boy, who, taking the copy, reads 
in a clear voice, but with great rapidity and often without 
the least attention to sound, sense, pauses, or cadences, the 
precise words of the most crabbed or intricate copy, insert- 
ing, without pause or embarrassment, every interlineation, 
note, or side-note. The gabble of these boys in the reading- 
room, where there are three or four reading, is most amusing, 
a stranger hearing the utmost confusion of tongues, uncon- 
nected sentences, and most monotonous tones. The readers 
plodding at their several tasks with the most iron composure, 
are not in the least disturbed by the Babel around them, but 
follow carefully every word, marking every error, or pausing 
to assist in deciphering every unknown or foreign word. 
This first reading is strictly confined to making the proof an 
exact copy of the manuscript, and ascertaining the accuracy 
of the composition ; consequently first readers are generally 
intelligent and well-educated compositors, whose practical 
knowledge enables them to detect the most trivial technical 
errors. Having thus a second time perused the proof, and 
carefully marked upon the copy the commencement, signa- 
ture, and folio of the succeeding sheet, he sends it by his 



PRINTING. ] 



[ Platb 3. 




PRINTING. ] 



[ Plate 4. 




Printing — Practical. 73 

reading-boy to the composing-room to be corrected by the 
workmen who have taken share in the composition. These 
immediately divide the proof amongst them, and each, taking 
that portion of it which contains the matter he had composed, 
and going to his cases, gathers the letters marked as correc- 
tions in the margin, together with a quantity of spaces of all 
sizes, and returns to the forms, which in the meanwhile one 
of them has laid up on the imposing-table and unlocked. 
He then with a bodkin lifts up each line in which a correc- 
tion is required, draws out the wrong letter and inserts the 
right one, adjusting the spaces in such a way as to compen- 
sate for the increased or diminished size of the letter substi- 
tuted, overrunning carefully several lines should any word 
have been added or struck out, so that the spacing may be 
uniform, and the corrected matter exhibit no indication of 
any alteration having been made. This is an operation re- 
quiring much practice and skill ; and here is shown the value 
of attention in the preliminary operations. Should the types 
have been carelessly laid or inaccurately distributed, should 
the workman have been negligent in composition, capitaling, 
or spacing, he will consume as much time in amending his 
errors as in composing his matter, to the great detriment of 
his work, the injury and inconvenience of his employer and 
his companions, and great delay in every department of the 
printing-office. When every compositor has corrected his 
matter, that one whose matter is last in the sheet locks it up, 
and another proof is pulled, which, with the original proof, 
is taken to the same first reader, who compares the one with 
the other, and ascertains that his marks have been carefully 
attended to, in default of which, he again sends it up to be 
corrected ; but should he find his revision satisfactory, he 
sends the second proof with the copy to the second reader, by 
whom it undergoes the same careful inspection ; but this 
time, most technical inaccuracies having been rectified, the 
reader observes whether the author's language be good and 
intelligible ; if not, he makes such queries on the margin as 
his experience may suggest ; he sends it up to the composi- 
tor, where it again undergoes correction, and a proof being 
very carefully pulled, it is sent down to the same reader, 
who revises his marks and transfers the queries. The proof 
is then sent, generally with the copy, to the author for his 



74 Five Black Arts. 

perusal, who, having made such alterations as he thinks 
necessary, sends it back to the printing-office for correction. 
With the proper attention to these marks, the printer's re- 
sponsibility as to correctness ceases, and the sheet is now 
ready for press. Such at least is the process of proof- 
reading which ought to be adopted ; but now, from the speed 
with which works are hurried through the press, the proofs 
are frequently sent out with only one reading, the careful 
press-reading being reserved until the author's revise is re- 
turned. 

It need scarcely be remarked that " correctness of the 
press " is a very material feature in every work, and more 
especially in those of a scientific nature. When the atten- 
tion and the mind are devoted to the train of some close 
argument or passage of surprising beauty, it is surprising 
how easily an error of the press, even although it may not 
injure the sense, and may be as evident " as the sun at noon," 
will destroy the charm, and break the " thread of the dis- 
course ;" and even in works of ordinary reading they are 
exceedingly offensive. Many curious anecdotes are related 
of the methods which the earlier printers adopted to attain 
correctness. It was the glory of the early literati to take 
charge of the accuracy of new works ; and, in return, the 
value and sale of each edition varied with the skill and repu- 
tation of the corrector. Of these, Erasmus is an illustrious 
example. Many of the first printers were led to the prac- 
tice of the art by their love of learning, and their anxiety to 
promote it by the production of classic authors. Hence 
several are better known in the world of learning than in 
the circle of bibliographers ; as the editors and correctors of 
valuable works, than as the careful or beautiful printers of 
them. Aldus, it is true, has so admirably succeeded in both 
characters, that he has fully established his double fame ; but 
whether he was most valued himself upon his learning or his 
skill may be doubted. It would appear from his letters that 
he considered it as his chiefest duty to correct every sheet 
that passed through his press. In all his bustle in preparing 
every material in use in his art, in all his occupations public 
and private, this important duty was never neglected. He 
tells us " that he has hardly time to inspect, much less to 
correct, the sheets which are executed in his ofiice ; that his 



PRINTING. ] 



[ Plate 5. 





1 ™ 


™ 


ffi Illlll 


b^^Bh 


1 V 




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19 


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10 


13 


12 


Ud 




ISCh 


mm^m 



PRINTING. ] 



[ Plate 



H^H 


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51 




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II 




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il 




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H 






m^S^KK^ 







Feinting — Practical. 75 

days and his nights are devoted to the preparation of fit 
materials ; and that he can scarcely take food or strengthen 
his stomach, owing to the multiplicity and pressure of busi- 
ness ; meanwhile," adds he, " with both hands occupied, and 
surrounded by pressmen who are clamorous for work, there 
is scarely time even to blow one's nose :" nor did his son or 
grandson depart from his ways, but did themselves insure 
the correctness of their works, even when the latter had 
risen to wealth and eminence, and enjoyed the laborious dig- 
nity of a professor's chair. The beautiful Greek works of 
the Stephani are especially valued for their correctness. 
Stephens corrected his own press with intense labor and 
minuteness, and is reported to have adopted a singular plan 
for obtaining perfect similarity to the copy, by employing 
females who had not the slightest knowledge of the Greek 
characters or language to compare every letter of the proof 
with the manuscript ; a labor so intense as to be almost in- 
credible. He is moreover said to have hung up proofs on 
the doors of his printing-office, and to have amply rewarded 
any who could detect inaccuracies therein. Coverdale, it 
will be recollected, corrected the first English Bible and 
Testament, and received a bishopric as his reward. Foulis, 
the celebrated printer at Glasgow, adopted the same plan 
to insure the accuracy of his edition of Horace, which is 
styled immaculate ; in which, however, one error escaped de- 
tection, the ode commencing Scriberis Vario, being printed, 
as originally issued, Scribfris Vario. 

The experience of every printer will furnish a host of 
laughable errors ; and indeed these defects have been deem- 
ed of such importance as to deserve preservation. (D'ls- 
raeli's Cariosities of Literature.') The omission of the word 
not from the seventh commandment, in an edition of the Bi- 
ble printed by the Stationers' Company, is well known ; and 
the company richly deserve the severe fine they incurred for 
spreading the immoral command, " Thou shalt commit adul- 
tery." The Bible so misprinted has received the name of 
the " Adultery Bible ; " and a copy is preserved in the Brit- 
ish Museum, the edition having been carefully suppressed. 
There is another Bible known as the " Vinegar Bible," from 
a misprint in the 20th chapter of St. Luke, where " Parable 
of the Vinegar " is printed for " Parable of the Vineyard ;" 



76 Five Black Arts. 

this proceeded from the Clarendon press. In the reign of 
Charles I. a very curious traffic in Bibles, etc., arose ; they 
were printed by any one who chose, and imported in vast 
numbers from abroad. It will readily be imagined that these 
were made for sale, not for use, and that they abounded with 
egregious errors: but, what is worse than this, they were full 
of mistranslations and interpolations, and the omissions were 
fearful. All these were done as much by design as by acci- 
dent, the Romanists and sectaries taking the opportunity of 
■advancing their own tenets by interpolating and altering 
texts to suit their views. These monstrous anomalies pro- 
duced, however, some good ; they occasioned the necessity of 
the authorized version now in use, and printed under such 
authority as insures perfect fidelity, whilst there is sufficient 
competition to make it impossible that the Word of God can 
ever become a sealed book to the humblest and poorest Chris- 
tian. Some of the blunders in these editions are sufficiently 
absurd to overcome the repugnance which must naturally be 
felt at such license. Thus, 'in Luke xxi. 28, condemnation 
has been misprinted for redemption. In Field's Bible of 
1653, called the Pearl Bible, Rom. vi. 13, we find " Neither 
yield ye your members as instruments of righteousness unto 
sin," instead of unrighteousness ; and 1 Cor. vi. 9, " Know 
ye not that the unrighteous shall inherit the kingdom of 
God ?" for shall not inherit. It is said that these corrup- 
tions are in a great measure owing to Field's cupidity, and 
that he received a bribe of 1600Z. from the Independents to 
alter the text in Acts vi. 3, to sanction the right of the peo- 
ple to appoint their own pastors, " Wherefore, brethren, look 
ye out among you seven men of honest report, full of the 
Holy Ghost and wisdom, whom ye may appoint over this 
business," instead of we. This Bible is notorious, and, 
strange to say, valued, for its gross incorrectness. It is as- 
serted that no less than six thousand errors of greater or less 
magnitude have been noted in it. But the most extraordi- 
nary example of carelessness is presented by the Vulgate, 
the printing of which was sedulously superintended by no 
less an authority than Sextus V., a curious example of the 
infallibility of the Pope. To the astonishment of the world, 
it swarmed with errors ; and a whimsical attempt was made 
to remedy the defects by pasting printed slips of paper over 



PRINTING. ] 



[ Plate 7. 



PRINTING. ] 



[ Plate 8. 



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Printing — Practical. 77 

the erroneous passages. As this, however, was exceedingly 
laughable, the papal authority was exerted to the utmost to 
call in the edition, and with such effect that it soon became 
very scarce, and a copy of it has produced the sura of sixty 
guineas. To add to the absurdity, the volume contains a 
bull from the Pope anathematizing and excommunicating all 
printers who, in printing it, should make any alteration in 
the text. The monkish editor of Tlte Anatomy of the 3Iass, 
printed in 1561, a work consisting of 172 pages of text and 
fifteen pages of errata, very amusingly accounts for these 
mistakes by attributing them to the artifice of satan, who 
caused the printers to commit such numerous blunders ; but 
he does not inform us whether it was really the archangel 
fallen, or only his minor satellite, the printer's devil. The 
editor of an Ethiopic version of St. Paul's Epistles inno- 
cently confesses, in palliation of his errors, " that they who 
printed the work could not read, and we could not print : 
thev helped us and we helped them, as the blind helps the 
blind." 

The sheet being printed off in the way hereafter to be de- 
scribed, and the forms returned by the pressmen to the com- 
posing-room, and very carefully washed with lye, and rinsed 
with water, the compositor lays them up on a letter-board in 
the sink, and there unlocks them ; he then passes one hand 
backward and forward over the pages so as effectually to 
loosen the type, and at the same time with the other pours 
on water, till, the lye and ink being washed away, it runs off 
clear. The forms are then allowed to drain, and carried to 
the bulks at the end of the frames. Each compositor em- 
ployed on the work then takes a share of the letter, and, 
wetting the face of it plentifully with a sponge, which causes 
the types to adhere sufficiently to prevent accidents, yet not 
so much as to retard the workman, takes up a portion on his 
setting-rule, with the nick upward, and the face turned 
toward him ; he then takes between his fingers and thumb a 
few letters, gives a rapid glance at the face to see what let- 
ters they are, and then, passing his hand rapidly over the 
cases, drops each into its appropriate box. In this operation 
the greatest attention is necessary, for it must be remem- 
bered that every letter dropped into a wrong box in dis- 
tributing is sure to cause an error in composing ; for the 



78 Five Black Arts. 

workman, as before stated, never looks at the letter he takes 
up, relying upon the correctness of the distribution. Com- 
positors, therefore, should be especially careful, when learn- 
ing their business, not to sacrifice accuracy to swiftness ; for 
in this instance most especially is it found that too much haste 
is little speed. If the rapidity of motion in composition 
strikes the stranger with wonder, what must that of distribu- 
tion occasion ? Most compositors distribute four times as 
rapidly as they compose ; if, therefore, he pick upt wo thou- 
sand letters in an hour, he would distribute eight or ten thou- 
sand, or about three per second. His letter being properly 
distributed, he again proceeds to compose in the manner be- 
fore described, until the work is finished. The number of 
times the types are returned to their cases must depend upon 
the size of the font. A thousand pounds' weight of types 
would get up five or six sheets ; and therefore, in an ordi- 
nary octavo volume, the types would be returned five or six 
times. 

Many attempts have been made to substitute machinery 
for the manual labor of the compositors. The machines of 
Messrs. Young and Delcambre (1842), and of Major Rosen- 
borg, deserve mention for their great ingenuity ; and Major 
Beniowski has attempted a process by which, by the use of a 
new description of type, logotypes, cases, and machinery, a 
great saving of time and money may be effected. But there 
are requirements in the process of composing which are in- 
dependent of mechanism, and which have hitherto rendered 
these inventions practically useless. 

THE PRINTING-PRESS. 

The press is the machine whereby impressions are obtained 
of the type, when set up by the compositor as above described. 
On the skill and care of the pressman depends the beauty of 
the work. If the press-work be not good, all the labor of the 
compositor is thrown away ; his work makes no respectable 
appearance, and the master gets no credit. 

It has already been mentioned that very little alteration 
had been made in the printing-press from the time of the first 
printers to that of Blaew of Amsterdam, about 1620. 
Blaew's improvements, although yery great, only consisted in 
and not in the j)rinciple. These 



PRINTING. ] 



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PRINTING. ] 



[ Plate 10. 



iC^ 14 



Printing — Practical. 79 

presses have in their turn been superseded by those of Lord 
Stanhope ; and the latter has found successful competitors in 
the Columbian, Albion, and others of more modern inven- 
tion. Very few of Blaew's construction ara now in exist- 
ence, save in old offices in England, where they are used as 
proof-presses, or kept merely as curiosities. As a descrip- 
tion of these by-gone pieces of mechanism would be of little 
utility, the Stanhope press, by which they have been super- 
seded, has been selected for illustration, for which it is best 
adapted, from the simplicity of its construction and its being 
easily explained. The novelty of his lordship's invention 
consists in an improved application of the power to the spin- 
dle and screw, whereby it is greatly increased. Upon refer- 
ence to fig. 6, it M'ill be seen that this press possesses great 
strength and compactness. The heavy mass of iron AA, 
somewhat resembling a vase in outline, is called the staple. 
It is united at the top and bottom, but the neck and body are 
open. The upper part is called the nut B, and answers the 
purpose of the head in the old press ; it is in fact a box with 
a female screw, in which the screw of the spindle C works ; 
the lower portion of the open part, described as the neck, is 
occupied with a piston and cup D, D, in and on which the toe 
of the spindle works. On the nearer side of the staple is a 
vertical pillar or arbor A (fig. 7), the lower end of which is 
inserted into the staple at the top of the shoulder ; the upper 
end passes through a top-plate B, which being screwed on to 
the upper part of the staple, holds it firmly. The extreme 
upper end of the arbor (which is hexagonal) receives a head 
C, which is in fact a lever of some inches in length ; this 
head is connected by a coupling-bar E to a similar lever or 
head D, into which the upper end of the spindle is inserted. 
The bar or lever F, by which the power is applied by the 
workman, is inserted into the arbor, and not into the spindle, 
by which ingenious contrivance — Is^, the lever is in length 
the whole width of the press, instead of half, as in Blaew's 
press, and is, moreover, in a much better situation for the 
application of the pressman's strength ; 2c?, there is the ad- 
ditional lever of the arbor-head ; 35, the additional lever of 
the spindle-head ; and, lastly, the screw itself may be so en- 
larged in diameter as greatly to increase its power. The 
platen L is screwed on to the under surface of the spindle ; 



80 Five Black Arts. 

the table M has slides underneath, which move in the rihs 
N, N, instead of wpon them, as in the old presses, and is run 
in and out by means of girths affixed to each end, and passing 
round a drum or wheel 0. As the platen is of considerable 
weight, the workman would have to exert much strength in 
raising it from the form after the impression has been given, 
were not a balance-weight P suspended upon a lever and 
hook at the back of the press, which counterbalances the 
weight of the platen, raises it from the form, and brings the 
bar-handle back again, ready for another pull. These are 
the principal parts of the machinery Avhereby the impression 
is given, and are sufficient to give the general reader, with 
the aid of fig. 7, an idea of the mechanism of the Stanhope 
press. For the printer there are yet other appliances. At 
the right-hand end of the table is an iron frame Q, moving 
freely upon pivots, so as to fall upon the table, or rise until 
stopped by what is called the gallows E. ; this is covered with 
parchment very tightly stretched, and is then called the tym- 
pan ; upon the tympan blankets are placed, which are cov- 
ered by an inner tympan, and fastened by hooks ; the whole 
forming a solid yet elastic and yielding surface, admirably 
fitted for impressing the paper upon the type (for this is its 
use), inasmuch as the surface of the parchment is soft and 
without grain, and readily receives the impression of the 
type, while the blankets give freely to every projection, with- 
out retaining any indentation. To protect those portions of 
the paper which are not intended to be colored from ink or 
soil, there is at the upper end of the tympan another iron 
frame, of much lighter make, and also moving upon pivots, 
so as to fall upon the face of the tympan. This is covered 
with a sheet of coarse paper, and after an impression has 
been taken upon it, the exact size and form of the pages are 
carefully cut out therefrom, the parts left being an excellent 
protection of the paper under them. This is called the 
frishet. 

Such is the ordinary Stanhope press. A notice of the 
principle of many other excellent presses which have been 
since invented, and very extensively introduced, will be found 
in a subsequent part of this treatise. The manner of work- 
ing is the same in all. 

On the left front of the press stands the inking-table. 



PRINTLN'G. ] 



[ Plate 11. 




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Printing — Practical. 81 

This is made of iron, about four feet high, and three feet 
four inches wide ; at the back is a solid iron cylinder, turned 
perfectly true, against which a thin steel straight-edge is 
made to press by means of levers and weights, thus forming 
a trough for the ink ; of which, when the cylinder is turned 
round, it becomes covered with a thin film, its thickness 
being regulated by adjusting the weights on the levers. 
Against this iron cylinder the inking-roller (which will be 
hereafter described) is dabbed, and being rolled backward 
and forward on the table, the ink is evenly distributed over 
its surface. 

It must be fully understood that printers' ink is a very dif- 
ferent composition from that used for writing. It is of such 
consistency that if a small portion be taken up between the 
finger and thumb, when they are opened it will produce a 
thread of an inch or an inch and a half in length. Of all the 
materials used in printing this is the most important, and 
the most opposite qualities are required in it. It must be of 
excellent color. Formerly excellence of color was deemed 
to consist in an exceeding dark hue, not exactly black, but 
black enriched with a hue of the darkest blue or purple. 
This gave indescribable effect to the works for which it wag 
used, a richness and intensity which it is impossible to describe, 
but of which the works of Baskerville and Bulmer, especially 
the Milton of the latter, afford the best specimens. Now 
we hold perfection to consist in the intensest black, and all 
the resources of chemistay and the arts have been sought to 
attain this end. It must stand for ever ; but here w^e have 
miserably failed. Compare the productions of the old print- 
ers with those printed twenty years back. What a differ- 
ence ! The works of the Aldi and Elzevirs, of Plantinus, 
Caxton, Pynson, and Grafton, preserve their color as intense 
as on the day they were printed ; there is no yellowness or 
brownness, no foxiness ; whilst the books printed from 1810 
to 1820 are Avretchedly discolored. Where fine printing, 
however, has been required and paid for ^ the modern ink ia 
no whit inferior to the ancient. Witness the works of Bul- 
mer, Macklin, Ritchie, Bowyer, Baskerville, and others ; but 
certain it is that the ink in general use twenty years ago 
was of very inferior quality. It must be perfectly mixed, 
and ground until it is absolutely impalpable, otherwise it will 
6 



82 Five Black Arts. 

speedily clog the types and inking apparatus ; it must adhere 
to the paper, and not to the type, or it will tear off the face 
of the former, and clog up the latter ; it must be sufficiently 
thick ; it must keep perfectly undried when in large masses, 
and dry very quickly when it is transferred to the paper. 
Few printers of the present day make their own ink, although 
some add ingredients which they believe to improve the 
color or quality. Ink-making is a distinct business ; and by 
the aid of machinery, capital, and exclusive attention to the 
manufacture, the ink now supplied is admirable in the quali- 
ties of being thoroughly mixed and ground, drying, black- 
ness, etc.; but whether it will stand the test of time, time 
alone can show. It is an expensive article, the commonest 
book-ink being one shilling and sixpence per pound,* whilst 
the usual qualities are two shillings and sixpence, three shil- 
lings, and four shillings per pound ; those used for superior 
work are five shillings or six shillings ; and those for cuts as 
high as ten shillings — though it is questionable whether, at 
the latter price, the consumer is not paying for a mere 
name. 

Every manufacturer has of course his own secrets both 
of ingredients and process. The universal ingredient is of 
the finest possible lamp-black ; the great secret probably con- 
sists in the manner in which, and the material from which, 
this is made. There are vast buildings appropriated to the 
sole purpose of burning oil, naphtha, spirits, coal-gas, etc., 
to produce this black, which is collected from the sides, ceil- 
ings, etc., of the buildings ; it is brought from Germany and 
many other countries ; and no expense is spared to get the 
most superior quality. The next most important article is 
nut or linseed oil boiled and burnt into a varnish ; then oil 
of turpentine, etc. The following receipts have been given. 
The first is the method used by Baskerville and Bulmer, and 
nothing can be better than the results : 

1. Fine old linseed oil boiled to a thick varnish, and cooled 
in small quantities, three gallons ; a small quantity of black 
or amber rosin dissolved therein ; the mixture then stands 
for some months, that all impurities may be deposited ; after 
which it is mixed with the finest lamp-black, and carefully 
ground for use. 

* In England. In America, the ordinary price is thirty cents per pound. 



Printing — Practical. 83 

2. One hundred pounds of nut or linseed oil are reduced 
by boiling and burning one-tenth or one-eighth of its bulk, 
and to the thickness of a syrup, two pounds of coarse bread 
and several onions being thrown in to purify it from grease. 
Thirty or thirty-five pounds of turpentine are boiled apart, 
until, on cooling it on paper, it breaks clean, without pulver- 
izing. The former is poured nearly cold into the latter, 
and well mixed. The compound is then boiled again. Lamp- 
black is next thoroughly mixed with it, in quantity according 
to the ink required, and being well ground, the ink is then 
ready for use. Some add indigo, some Prussian blue, which 
considerably improves the color ; but these inks are so diffi- 
cult to work, and so clog up the type, that the improvement 
is better let alone. The turpentine is added to give greater 
varnish, and improve the drying quality ; but if the oil be 
old and fine, the quantity required is proportionally less. 

3. Mr. Savage, an admirable artist, denies that any ink 
can be depended on of the varnish of which oil is the basis ; 
he therefore gives the following receipt : Balsam capivi, 9 oz.; 
best lamp-black, 3 oz.; Prussian blue, IJ oz.; Indian red, 
I oz.; turpentine soap dried, 3 oz. This ink is of beautiful 
color, but appears to work foul. 

At the right front of the press stand the hank and horse. 
The bank is a deal table of some size ; the horse is an in- 
clined plane which stands upon the bank ; upon it is laid the 
white paper properly damped for working; and as each 
sheet is worked, it is taken ofi" the tympan and laid on the 
bank. There are two pressmen to each press, one of whom 
attends to the inking only, to ascertain the excellence of 
which, whenever he has a moment to spare, he turns to the 
worked sheets upon the bank, glancing his eye rapidly over 
each, to see that every part is of its proper color, and that 
no picks or other imperfections mar the work ; the other 
attends only to the press, and gives the impression. These 
men are paid by every two hundred and fifty impressions, 
called a token. Thus, if the number be five hundred, and 
the price 4JcZ. per token, each man receives ^d. for the five 
hundred impressions of each form, and the cost therefore is, 

Inner form, two men, two token, at A\d Is. Qd. 

Outer form, do do do Is. 6d. 

3s. Od. 



84 Five Black Arts. 

The price varies with the size of the type and the form ; 
■with the quality of the paper and the ink ; with the number, 
and the care required. Common work used to be paid for 
at 4|cZ., good at 6d., superior at Id., the very best at 8c?., 
9d., or even Is, per token.* But now the price is matter 
of agreement between the master and pressmen. 

One of the pressmen, having received the forms after the 
final correction, lays the inner form, or that one which con- 
tains the second signature, upon the table of the press, and 
secures it in the center by quoins ; the other in the mean- 
while pastes a stout sheet of paper upon the frisket frame, 
and then secures it upon the tympan. The form is then 
inked, and an impression taken upon the frisket, and the 
printed parts only being cut away, that which is left protects 
the paper from ink or soil. The puller now carefully folds 
a sheet of the paper according to the crosses of the chase, 
and laying it upon the form, opens it carefully, by which the 
paper is made to lie evenly upon the form, with the same 
margin with which it is to be afterward worked. Having 
slightly wetted the tympan, he turns it down upon the form, 
and takes an impression, when the paper will be found to 
adhere to the tympan, and thus become a guide whereby to 
lay all the subsequent sheets, and therefore much care should 
be taken to lay it properly. They now choose their points, 
which are thin and narrow pieces of iron, having a short 
point or spur projecting from one end, and a shank at the 
other made to screw on to the tympan-frame, which must be 
done in such a manner that the spurs may fall into the 
grooves in the cross of the chase ; because if they did not, 
they would be battered or broken at the first pull. It is ad- 
visable to make the inner form register, for it may be very 
dijfficult to correct any error in the furniture when the reiter- 
ation, or outer form, is laid on. 

The puller now brings his paper from the wetting-room ; 
for before any good impression can be taken the paper must 
have been damped, by rapidly passing it, one-fourth or one- 
fifth of a quire at a time, through water, and then allowing 
it to soak for two or three days under a heavy weight, until 
it is evenly and thoroughly damped ; and laying a ream up- 
on the horse, he takes a sheet, and placing it carefully over 

* The price for hand-press work in America is twenty-five cents per token. 



Printing — Practical. 85 

the tjmpan-sheet, closes the frisket over it, shuts both tym- 
pan and frisket down upon the form, -which in the mean while 
his companion has inked (a process that will be described 
below), runs the table in under the platen, pulls the handle 
of the bar or lever over by his full weight, until brought up 
by the stop, at which moment the platen descends, and 
exerts a powerful pressure to the tympan, etc., upon the form, 
producing upon the paper a perfect fac-simile in reverse of 
the surface of the pages. The pressman now gradually re- 
leases his hold, the balance-weight raises the platen, the bar 
returns to its first position, the table is run out, the tympan 
and frisket are raised by the workman, and the frisket thrown 
up to the catch. The sheet is taken off the spurs of the 
points, which have been forced through it by the pressure, 
and the back of the impression is carefully examined, to as- 
certain that every part of it is just and even, which is the 
great test of the workman's skill and the excellence of the 
press. The first impression is, however, invariably defective : 
the parchment may have been thicker in some parts than in 
others, the blankets worn, or one of two fonts of type may 
not have been of equal height, in which respect " the estima- 
tion of a hair" would produce a manifest imperfection, but 
which may be remedied by the thinnest possible tissue paper. 
The pressman now proceeds to overlay ; that is, by pasting 
upon his tympan-sheets portions of paper of the exact size of 
the defects, thicker or thinner as may be required, to bring 
up the form ; he overlays the faint parts of the impression ; 
or if the defect be great, he places a part of a sheet of paper 
within the tympan, or, which is a much better plan, he raises 
the form, and pastes the paper under the defective part. 
If there be any small portion of undue prominence, or that 
'• comes off hard," he rubs down a portion of the tympan- 
sheet with his wet fingers, or cuts it away altogether. Hav- 
ing, as he supposes, remedied all blemishes, he takes another 
impression, which he again examines with equal closeness, 
and carefully removes every remaining defect by the same 
method; and having at length satisfied himself, and his 
master or overseer, that the form is well brought up, the 
work is proceedtd with, the inker taking off from the table 
with the roller or balls even portions of ink, which has been 
well distributed on its surface, and rolls or beats the form, 



86 Five Black Arts. 

being very careful that every part is equally inked ; the 
puller taking a sheet and laying it on the tympan as before. 
They thus proceed until the whole number of the ■white paper 
is worked off; when it is a good precaution to count the 
heap, to ascertain that the number printed is correct. The 
form is now lifted from the table, and carefully washed with 
very strong lye. The outer form is then laid on and made 
ready. 

The making ready of this form varies a little from the 
mode previously described. It has been stated that the 
spurs of the points penetrate the paper at the first impres- 
sion. The holes thus made are the guides whereby perfect 
register is obtained ; that is, whereby not only the pages, 
but the lines, are made to fall exactly upon the back of each 
other, any variation in this respect being a great defect in 
good book-work. The outer form, therefore, having been 
placed on the table in precisely the same position which the 
inner previously occupied, a printed sheet is taken from the 
heap, and laid upon the tympan with its printed face inward, 
in such manner that the spurs of the points pass through 
the holes made by them in the working of the inner form, 
but of course the opposite way ; and an impression is taken. 
If the pages do not back, the points are shifted until they do ; 
or if the defect arise from the furniture of the form, such 
alterations are made in it as may be necessary. The im- 
pression is then brought up as before, and when all is ready, 
a thin sheet of white paper, called the set-off sheet, is placed 
over the tympan-sheet and under the points. It must be 
remembered that one side has been worked, that the ink has 
not yet dried, that the paper is still damp ; therefore at every 
impression some portion of the ink will be transferred to or 
impressed upon the set-off sheet. When this has taken place 
in many impressions, some of the ink of the print will be re- 
transferred from the set-off sheet to the sheet then working, 
producing a most unpleasing blurred appearance, very per- 
plexing to the eyes, and utterly destructive of the beauty of the 
press-work. To obviate this, the puller, after a few impres- 
sions, moves the set-off sheet slightly, and when it has be- 
come very black, takes it off, and replaces it with another. 
The pressman should be very attentive to this ; and the mas- 
ter should not grudge ample supplies of set-off paper, for it is 



Printing — Practical. 87 

net destroyed, but, when dried, may be used again for the 
same purpose, or in other departments as waste paper. The 
form is now lifted, and carefully washed with lye, and the 
two are ready for the composing-room, where they are laid 
up, as previously described. Two good pressmen are sup- 
posed to do about one token, or 250 impressions, per hour of 
fair work. This, however, must depend entirely upon the 
quality of the work required; with small type, stiff ink, and 
manv rules, the work is more slow, and paid for accordingly. 
The finest work is seldom paid for by the token, the press- 
men 3eing placed upon weekly wages, and allowed as much 
time as they require, the rapidity being at the discretion of 
the overseer. Frequently they are limited to a certain num- 
ber per hour, often as few as fifty, the most careful inspection 
being gven to every sheet by both pressmen, and continual 
attentioa by the press-overseer and other chief persons in the 
establishment. In such work the very best materials are 
employed. Instead of parchment, the tympans are covered 
with fine calico, or even silk ; instead of blankets the finest 
broadcloth ; picked blotting paper for the thick overlays, the 
thinnest tissue-paper for the finer. It will readily be under- 
stood that in all operations of the press-room, where every 
thing depends upon the skill of the workmen, there are in- 
finite minutit©, which it would be tedious, if it were even pos- 
sible, to enumerate. Seven years' apprenticeship are not more 
than sufficient to educate a good pressman ; it is the accumu- 
lated labor of a life to make a first-rate one : and, after all, 
excellence depends upon the native talent and ingenuity of 
the man himself. 

The ink is distributed over the type either by balls or by 
rollers. The rollers are of modern use. The balls, which 
are such prominent objects in the representation of ancient 
printing-offices, and which form part of the armorial bearings 
of the printers' guilds on the Continent of Europe, were for- 
merly made of sheep-skins, with the hair taken off by lime, 
and formed into a ball with wool, gathered at all corners, and 
nailed upon a wooden handle. One of these was held in 
each hand ; and a small portion of ink being taken, they 
vere well beaten upon the inking-table, and then upon each 
other, until the ink was so evenly distributed over the whole 
surface, that if touched gently with the finger, the prominent 



88 Five Black Arts. 

lines of the skin would be blackened, wliilst the channels 
would be left perfectly clean. The balls were then beaten 
over every part of the type, so that the whole surface should 
be evenly covered ; an operation requiring much skill and 
practice. The skins were prepared and softened by the nas- 
tiest processes imaginable, which converted a press-room into 
a stinking cloaca. Thanks, however, to the observation and 
ingenuity of Mr. Forster, a practical printer, and Mr. pon- 
kin, an engineer, this has been entirely done away, and a 
press-room now regales the nose with a warm scent oi ink 
and paper, any thing but unpleasant. This inventioK has 
been of the greatest consequence to printing. The prijiting- 
machine is said to be the handmaid of modern literature ; 
and so it is ; but without this, printing machines were mere 
old iron and brass. Earl Stanhope had attempted to substi- 
tute skin rollers for skin balls ; but his plan failed owing to 
the difficulty of preparing the pelts, and the inevitable seam, 
which left a broad mark upon the type. But tte use of 
rollers, which in the hand-press would have been merely an 
improvement on a process in use, was a necessity to the print- 
ing-machine, and the complete failure of the earliest of these 
machines was in a great degree owing to the imperfection of 
their inking appliances. For many years the workmen in 
the potteries had used a composition of glue and treacle for 
applying colors to their ware. Mr. Forster observed that this 
composition possessed every requisite for the use of the 
printing-office, and he immediately proceeded to form balls of 
canvas, with a facing of composition. They answered admi- 
rably, proved beautifully soft, distributed satisfactorily, kept 
clean, and were easily washed and purified if soiled. Some 
opposition was offered by the workmen ; but the advantages 
proved so great that they were readily adopted by the mas- 
ters, and speedily drove away forever the nasty skins. Thei 
next step, however, was more important still. Mr. Donkin 
observing the adaptability of the composition to casting roll- 
ers for printing-machines, devised moulds, by which he was 
able to cast cylinders without seam, and of somewhat greater 
tenacity than the original compound. The rollers answered 
perfectly for printing-machines ; and there was little diffi- 
culty in perceiving that at the hand-press the roller might be 
advantageously substituted for beating by balls. They were 



PRINTING. ] 



[ Plate 12. 





=: A 



^^5 7. 



Printing — Pkactical. 89 

accordingly introduced, and after meeting with some oppo- 
sition, are now in universal use. They consist of a solid 
wooden cylinder, with a thick coating of composition cast in 
a metal mould perfectly true ; through the middle of the cyl- 
inder passes an iron rod attached to a curved bar, upon which 
are fixed two handles ; the roller revolving freely upon the 
rod. The pressman regulates the quantity of ink to be taken 
by adjusting the pressure of the straight edge against the 
cylinder at the back of the table, as above described ; and 
according as that pressure is greater or less, the cuticle of 
ink on its surface is proportionately diminished or increased 
in thickness. Having taken off upon the inking-roller a line 
of ink, he distributes it carefully upon the table until the en- 
tire face is evenly covered, and then rolls the form, taking 
care that the whole surface receives its due proportion. If 
he does this lightly and steadily, there is no fear of the re- 
sult ; he cannot in rolling leave any part without ink ; but it 
nevertheless requires some judgment. If there be any heavy 
titles or large type, he must roll that portion several times ; 
if there be blank pages, he must take care that the roller 
does not sink, and so leave the pages in line with them 
slightly touched. The greatest judgment, however, is dis- 
played in choosing the exact quantity of ink requii-ed for the 
form. If the type be small, the quantity taken must also be 
small ; it must be very carefully distributed, and the form 
rolled many times ; for if the quantity be too great the type 
will become clogged, and if too little, the color will become 
faint. The pressman must from time to time examine the 
sheets as they are printed, and in working the reiteration, 
turn up the corners of the sheets to see that the color cor- 
responds with that of the inner form, detecting with quick 
eye every defect ; and he must be particularly careful that 
for every sheet of the same work he takes the same quantity 
of ink, so that the book when bound may present an even 
and beautiful color, every bold line being perfectly covered, 
and yet every fine stroke clear and distinct. This can only 
be effected by careful distribution and repeated rolling, with 
nice judgment as to the quantity of ink to be taken. 

The sheet having thus been worked off", the printed paper 
is taken away by the warehouseman, and hung by the boys 
upon poles stretched under the ceiling, by means of a peel, 



90 Five Black Arts. 

which is a handle with a broad end, upon which a quire or 
two is hung at a time, thence transferred to the poles, and 
distributed in portions of four or five sheets. Here they 
hang a day or two, until the ink and paper are perfectly dry. 
This should be a gradual process, for if by artificial heat the 
drying is hurried, a skin will be formed upon the surface of 
the ink, which will prevent that underneath from drying ; 
the work will look very well until it is pressed or bound, 
when the skin breaks, the ink spreads, and the sharpness of 
the impression is entirely destroyed. When perfectly dry 
the sheets are taken down and laid in heaps upon the gather- 
ing-board, each signature separately; thus, first, a heap, say 
1000, of B, then C, D, E, F, and, lastly, the title-sheet A. 
The boys then take one sheet from each heap ; conse- 
quently, when they have got to the last signature, each boy 
has gathered one complete copy of the work. These are 
laid upon one another at the end of the gathering-board in 
such a manner that each book is perfectly distinct. The 
warehouseman then takes away this heap, and with a colla- 
tor (a needle inserted in a handle) goes over the whole with 
great rapidity, ascertaining that no sheet has been carelessly 
omitted, and that more than one of each signature has not 
been taken. The books are then folded down the middle, 
counted out in tens, thirteens, or twenty-fives, and tied up in 
bundles of convenient size. The process of printing is thus 
complete, and the work is ready for the binder. 

Works of finer description, indeed most works of the pres- 
ent day, are submitted to another process after they have 
been taken down from the poles, viz., hot or cold pressing, 
which very much improves their appearance. In cold press- 
ing the sheets are placed one by one between glazed boards, 
which are sheets of coarse material pressed and glazed on 
both surfaces by burnishing on a steel plate with a steel ball. 
The heaps are then placed in a hydrauhc press, with cold 
iron plates at small intervals, and the whole is subjected to 
considerable pressure for some hours ; they are then taken 
out, and the sheets extracted from the boards, when the in- 
dentations consequent upon the working will have been all 
pressed out, the roughnesses of the paper smoothed out, a slight 
gloss given to the ink, and the whole will present a very 
agreeable smoothness to the eye and the touch. Hot-press- 



Printing — Practical. 91 

ing is used when the paper is very stout and the ink strong. 
The sole difference is, that the iron plates are heated until 
they can hardly be touched. The effect produced is much 
greater than that by cold pressing ; the whole surface of the 
paper is perfectly glazed, and the ink absolutely shines ; but 
the effect is not so agreeable to the eye ; it is too gloss}'-. A 
machine of great power has been invented for superseding 
the use of glazed boards and the hydraulic : in this machine 
the sheets are placed between two plates of copper or zinc, 
and passed in rapid succession between two hard steel rollers, 
and come out more perfectly smoothed than by the ordinary 
hot or cold pressing. As these processes set the ink and 
also make the books lie perfectly flat, they render much beat- 
ing by the binder unnecessary, which is a great advantage, 
as the beating causes the ink to set-off upon the opposite 
pages when the work is recently printed. The glazed boards 
must be often cleaned by rubbing with waste paper, or they 
will soil the sheets placed between them. Every printing- 
office of credit should have an hydraulic press and glazed 
boards ; for it is incredible how much smartness pressing 
gives to the work, and how greatly the warehouse work is 
facilitated by the readiness with which the hydraulic is 
pumped up, and by its great power. A press of eight-inch 
ram will be found sufficient for most purposes ; but where 
much hot and cold pressing are required, one of ten-inch ram 
will prove cheapest, because, from its immense power, a few 
hours are sufficient to give the requisite surface, and the press 
may therefore be filled twice or thrice a day. 

Wood-blocks are very often worked along with the com- 
mon type. The block, having been carefully reduced by the 
engraver to the exact height of the type, is placed in the 
composing-stick, and justified to the width of the page ; it 
is then made up along with the other matter in its proper 
place. When laid upon the press for working, and an im- 
pression of the form has been taken, the pressman examines 
with great minuteness whether it stands well with the type ; 
if not, the form is unlocked, and paper placed under it if it 
be too low, or under any corner that may be lower than the 
rest ; if the block be too high, it must be scraped or filed at 
the bottom. The artist in wood contents himself with pro- 
ducing his lights and shades by cutting his lines in greater 



92 Five Black Arts. 

or less degrees of fineness upon a plane, leaving to the printer 
the task of producing the required effects by a tedious pro- 
cess of overlaying ; so that the pressman becomes to a cer- 
tain extent an artist, and must have a good eye for perspec- 
tive and for the proper adjustment of tints. These effects 
he produces by careful and skillful overlaying. But Bewick 
and some other eminent engravers, instead of imposing this 
tedious process upon the pressman, used to cut away the 
parts of the block intended to appear light before engraving 
them ; and thus, by repeated lowering and rounding, they so 
regulated the lights and shades that the cut left their hands 
in a fit state to be worked. This process was, however, very 
costly, and has been discontinued by modern artists. In 
machine-printing, to prevent the loss that would be incurred 
if the machine were to stand still during the operation of 
bringing-up, the machiner, some time before the sheet is laid 
on, takes an impression of the cuts,- and by overlaying and 
other processes, so prepares them that they require very little 
additional work when the forms are laid on. Where it can 
be managed, the cuts should be worked in the outer form, to 
prevent setting-off and the impression of reiteration upon 
them. The cuts may then be worked with the type without 
any other care than that of keeping them clear from clogging 
or picks. When done with, they must be very carefully 
cleaned with spirits of turpentine and a brush. 

The working of wood-cuts by themselves, as illustrations 
of works, differs from type-printing in no other respect than 
in the superior materials and skill required. The wood-cut 
must be imposed in a chase, and locked upon the table of the 
press, which is generally a smaller one than that used for ordi- 
nary printing, of most excellent construction, and in good or- 
der. The tympans are, as before stated, often of silk or cam- 
bric. For the inking, balls are preferred to rollers. The great- 
er opportunity for manual skill offered by the former enables 
the pressman to exercise an artistic judgment Avhich is not 
possible when rollers are used. The ink is generally brayed 
out by a muller on a slab. 

There are in London, and probably in the larger provincial 
cities, parties who make an especial business of the manufac- 
ture of composition balls and rollers, which they supply to 
printers upon payment of a rent. The skill and experience 



Printing — Practical. 93 

of these persons enable them, as must be the case in every 
instance where a manufacture engages exclusive attention, to 
supply a much better and cheaper article than could be man- 
ufactured by any individual whose engagements are varied ; 
consequently there are not many printers, either in town or 
country, who do not avail themselves of these opportunities. 
The rent is paid for each roller required, and by the quarter ; 
that is to say, if a printer employs six presses, and conse- 
quently six rollers, he pays for six rollers, the manufacturer 
engaging to supply him with as many changes as he may re- 
quire from their getting out of order or being injured ; in 
fact, to keep him supplied with six rollers in good condition. 
The rent for a common press-roller is the moderate sum of 
six shillings per quarter; they are sent into the country in 
boxes fitted for the purpose. There are, of course, situa- 
tions in which it is not easy to obtain a regular supply of the 
necessary article, and in this case the printer may very 
easily make them for himself ; but the expense of the uten- 
sils is so great as to exceed the usual rent for years. They 
consist of the following : For rollers, a hollow cylinder of 
iron, the bore of which must be most accurately turned and 
well polished ; this mould consists of two semi-cylinders 
closely fitted, and brought into contact by screws along the 
sides and collars at the end. and a head is made to fit into the 
lower end. The core, a wooden or iron cylinder, upon which 
the composition is cast, is held in the center of the bore by 
means of a star, through the radii of which the composition 
flows. For balls are required a concave mirror of about half 
an inch cavity, and a board of the same size and of a quarter 
of an inch convexity. A kettle for melting and mixing the 
composition is also required. This is made double like a 
glue-pot, fitting exceedingly close, and with a small orifice 
for the escape of the steam from the hot water between the 
two ; and the inner vessel should have a large lip. The 
recipes for making the composition vary, and this appears to 
arise from the different circumstances under which it is made. 
The ingredients are but three, and these easily purchasable, 
viz., fine glue, treacle (not that procured from the sugar- 
bakers, which is adulterated, but the best from the sugar-re- 
finers), and a small quantity of carbonate of barytes, called 
in commerce Paris white, or of carbonate of soda. The first 



94 Five Black Arts. 

two ingredients are quite sufficient with a little skill. The 
following are good recipes-: * 

1. Two pounds of glue to one pound of treacle. 

2. Two pounds of glue to three pounds of treacle. 

* An approved method of composing and casting rollers, in America, is 
described by A. B. Senter, pressman in Follett, Foster & Co.'s Printing 
and Publishing House, Columbus, Ohio, as follows : 

Take seven pounds of Upton's frozen glue, put it into hard water, and 
let it soak until the water has struck half way through it. In good frozen 
glue, this will be in ten minutes — in ordinary glue, considerably longer. 
Then take it out of the water, and let it lay long enough so that it will 
bend easily ; it is then ready for the kettle. 

The kettle for melting and mixing, should be so set as to heat and boil 
the composition by steam or a hot water bath, in the manner in use by 
cabinet-makers. Let the glue heat in the kettle until it is all dissolved, or 
if there should be any pieces that do not readily melt, take them out, or 
they will make the roller lumpy. When the glue is all melted evenly, 
take four quarts of good sugar-house molasses or sorghum syrup, stir it in, 
and continue to stir occasionally for three or four hours, during which time 
the heat under the kettle should be kept up so as to give the composition 
a gentle boil. To try the composition, take a little out on a piece of pa- 
per, and when cool, if it is tough so as to resist the action of the finger 
without feeling tacky, it is ready to cast. A person can generally tell 
Avhen it is done, by taking out the stirring stick and holding it up, when, 
if the composition will hang in strings, it is done. 

A very important feature of roller-making, is in preparing the core. 
Strip oif the old composition with a knife, and scrape the core. Keep 
water away from it, and also sweaty hands. If water is used at all, let it 
be hard water, and let the core dry thoroughly before casting. If the core 
is likely to give the composition the slip, brush it over with lime water 
newly made with quick lime, and let it dry well, and the composition will 
stick fast. 

Have the mould carefully cleaned and oiled on the inside, set it upright, 
with the core in its place in the center, then pour in the composition hot 
from the kettle, carefully, upon the end of the core, so as to run down the 
core, and not down the inner surface of the mould, as that would be likely 
to take off' the oil from the mould, and by flowing it against the core, 
would make it peel off when cast. 

When the composition is cold in the mould, and ready to be drawn out, 
draw it steadily ; trim the ends with a sharp knife, beveled toward the 
core, so the ends will not be so likely to get started loose ; take a hot iron 
and run it around the ends of the composition, soldering it to the core, 
which operation will prevent water, lye or oil from getting in between the 
composition and the wood, and making it peel at the ends. Do not M'ash 
a roller when it is taken from the mould ; it will be all the better for two 
or three days' seasoning, with the oil on the surface. It is always good 
economy to have enough rollers cast ahead, so as not to be obliged to use 
new ones until they are seasoned. In washing, use lye just strong enough 
to start the ink, and rinse off with water immediately, and carefully wipe 
dry with a sponge. Pollers should always be kept in an air-tight box, 
without water, and in the room where they are worked. Sudden changes 
of temperature, as from a cold cellar to a warm press-room, will soon use 
them up. 



Printing — Practical. 95 

3. One pound of glue to three pounds of treacle and a 
quarter of a pound of Paris white. 

(Sugar is sometimes used in lieu of treacle, and is said to 
make the composition firmer.) 

Soak the glue in water until it is soft ; then place it in the 
inner vessel, and boil quickly, until the glue is thoroughly 
dissolved ; add the treacle, mixing it well, and let it boil for 
an hour or more ; then sift in the Paris white, but do not stir 
it violently, or the mixture will be full of air-bubbles, which 
are destructive to. the roller or ball. Eub the mould slightly 
with a rag dipped in thin oil, taking care that no globules 
and streaks remain upon the surface. When the mixture is 
ready, pour it gently between the radii of the star, so that 
no air be detained within the cylinder, until the mould be 
filled ; allow it to set, and then take it from the mould, cut- 
ting off the superfluous portion with a string. When the 
roller has been hung up twenty-four hours it will be fit for 
use. Owing to the rapidity of the printing-machines re- 
cently introduced, the ordinary rollers have proved inade- 
quate to the w^ork ; but improvements have been introduced 
into the manufacture which remedy the defect. The ex- 
cellence of the new rollers is said to depend entirely on 
skillful manipulation. The ingredients are the same, but 
great experience is required in the choice of the glue, the 
proportion of the ingredients, the mixture, and the heat ap- 
plied. In making balls, having oiled the mirror, pour the 
composition upon the center, and having allowed it to spread 
itself, lay over it a piece of coarse canvas, place the board 
upon it, and lay weights upon it to press it down ; it will 
consequently be found that the composition face of the ball 
will be slightly thicker in the center than at the edges, which, 
besides being a convenience in the working, will allow it to 
be knocked up with much facility, which is done in the ordi- 
nary manner. These balls and rollers are very easily kept 
in order : if they are too soft, cold water will harden them ; 
if too hard, warm water Avill soften them. When not in use 
they should be covered with refuse ink, and hung up in a 
room of even temperature, and carefully scraped Avith a pal- 
let-knife before use. They should not be cleaned with spirits 
of turpentine, as that will give them a hard surface. These 
rollers will be fit for use for a long while if attention be paid 



96 Five Black Arts. 

to them ; and when spoiled, the composition maj be repeat- 
edly melted down, and, with an addition of new materials, 
will make as good rollers as before. When the proper apara- 
tus is wanting, small balls for wood-cuts or single pages may 
be made upon an earthern pallet, or even upon a smooth 
dinner-plate. 

A new process has recently been patented by Messrs. Har- 
rild for the manufacture of composition rollers, which enables 
them to resist the friction of the fastest machines even in 
the warmest weather, and to continue in working order for a 
much longer period than those at present in use. They are 
also but slightly affected by atmospheric changes. These are 
great advantages for the fast newspaper machines, and for 
country printers who have not the same facilities as the print- 
ers in the metropolis for changing their rollers when out of 
order. The principal difference in the new process is, that 
the glue is liquified without any admixture of moisture, the 
condensed steam which floats on the surface of the glue be- 
ing entirely drawn off by a syringe. 

STEREOTYPING. 

Stereotyping is a mode of making perfect fac-similes in 
type-metal of the face of pages composed of movable types. 
Letter-press printing being a very expensive process, the 
price of books consequently high, and the heaviest expense 
consisting in the composition, the printers of the Continent 
very soon set up the entire of such small works as were in 
constant demand, and thus were enabled to sell them at little 
more than the cost of paper and press-work. Some works 
of very great extent, especially Bibles and prayer-books, 
were kept standing by the privileged printers. This, how- 
ever, was exceedingly expensive, as the cost of the type would 
be very great ; the forms would occupy much space in stor- 
ing, and be liable to continual damage from the dropping 
out of letters, from batters, and other accidents to which they 
would be unavoidably exposed. Some method, therefore, by 
which all or some of these disadvantages might be remedied, 
became desirable. About the beginning of the eighteenth 
century, Van der Mey, in Holland, sought to avoid this lia- 
bility to accidents, by immersing the bottom of his pages in 



Printing — Stereotyping. 97 

melted lead or solder, and thus rendering them solid masses: 
" c'est une reunion des caracteres ordinaires par le pied, 
avec de la matidre fondue, de I'^ipaisseur d'environ trois 
mains de papier a ^crire ;" therefore the mass together would 
be somewhat less than the height of our type. It is not 
very easy to imagine how they contrived to make the backs 
of these blocks of such evenness as to produce any thing 
like a good impression ; but Dibdin says that the hook is very 
handsome. The same process was followed by a Jew of 
Amsterdam, in printing an English Bible ; but he was utterly 
ruined by his speculation. 

Some time before the year 1735 there is sufficient evidence 
that the French used casts of the calendars placed at the 
comm.encement of church books. These plates are thus de- 
scribed by Camus : " It (one of the plates) is formed of 
copper, and is three inches and a half long by two inches 
broad and one-seventh of an inch thick. From the rough- 
ness of the casting, it has evidently been made in a mould 
formed of sand or clay." After the plate had been cast, 
the back of it had been dressed with a file, in order that it 
might bear equally upon a block of wood to which it had 
been attached. 

Who really invented the art of stereotyping as at present 
practiced (and after all, he who finds out the efficient modus 
operandi is the inventor of the art, though he may not be of 
the principle) is, like the inventor of the parent art, a mat- 
ter of some controversy, which has been carried on with more 
vigor than the subject merited. It seems, however, most 
probable, when all assertions are weighed, that William Ged, 
a goldsmith of Edinburgh, deserves the credit. According 
to his statement, being in 1725 in company with a printer, 
they lamented the want of a good letter-founder in Scotland ; 
and the printer asked him whether he could do any thing to 
remedy the inconvenience. He immediately answered that 
it would be more easy to cast plates from pages when com- 
posed in movable type ; and he undertook to produce, and 
very shortly did so, a specimen cast on his new plan, and 
not long afterward made arrangements with a capitalist for 
the advance of the requisite funds. The latter failing to 
perform his part of the engagement, Ged made a similar con- 
tract with a London stationer, in conjunction with whom he 
7 



98 Five Black Arts. 

made many attempts ; but being repeatedly thwarted in per- 
fecting his plans, he separated from his partner, and made 
proposals to the universities and the king's printers for the 
stereotyping of Bibles and prayer-books. These all entered 
into the scheme with eagerness, and some works were pro- 
duced from plates quite equal to the ordinary printing of the 
day. Nevertheless, so much ignorance and prejudice pre- 
vailed amongst the workmen and other interested persons that 
Ged was obliged to abandon the undertaking. He entered 
into several subsequent arrangements, in which he was 
equally unsuccessful ; a type-founder, in particular, causing 
so much opposition that the invention made no progress. 
Ged died before he had met with much encouragement ; and 
his son was equally unsuccessful, although, as the practica- 
bility was made more manifest, the very parties who had re- 
jected his plans, subsequently made extensive use of his 
plates. What was Ged's method of stereotyping is unknown, 
as he kept it private ; nor did he fully communicate the se- 
cret to his partners. 

Fifty years afterward Mr. Tilloch made a similar invention ; 
but from private circumstances the design was laid aside, not, 
however, before several volumes had been printed from his 
stereotype plates at the press of Mr. Foulis. Some years 
after this. Lord Stanhope engaged an ingenious London prin- 
ter, Mr. Wilson, to prosecute the invention ; and after many 
trials, the noble lord's ingenuity succeeded in bringing the 
invention to practical use. 

When a work is expressly intended to be stereotyped, the 
spaces, quadrats, and leads generally used are somewhat 
different from those commonly employed, being cast of the 
same height as the stem of the letter, in order that the base 
of the plate may be more solid and of uniform thickness. 
When low spaces, etc., are used, plaster is poured upon the 
face of the type to fill up the interstices, and just before it 
sets the superfluous plaster above the stem of the letter is 
removed by a brush, which damages the face of the type 
not a little. The page is composed in the ordinary manner, 
and very carefully corrected ; it is then imposed in a small 
chase with metal furniture, and the whole is placed within a 
moulding-frame, somewhat less than half an inch higher than 



Printing — Stereotyping. 99 

the type. The surface of the type is then rubbed with a soft 
brush holding a small quantity of very thin oil. 

The plaster of Paris (gypsum) of which the mould is 
formed is of the finest quality, and may be purchased ready 
prepared. Having been carefully mixed with water to the 
thickness of cream, a small portion is gently poured upon 
the surface of the page, and softly worked in with a brush, 
care being taken that every part is fully covered, and that 
no air-bubbles remain. Then a larger quantity is poured 
on, and spread over the previous layer without disturbing it ; 
a straight-edge is then passed over the moulding-frame, clear- 
ing away the superfluous plaster, and leaving that within the 
frame of uniform thickness. It is then left to set. When 
sujBSciently dry, the moulding-frame is raised, and the mould 
with it, from off the face of the page ; the mould is then 
dressed, and placed in a heated oven until it be perfectly dry, 
and raised to an adequate temperature for the casting. The 
oil with which the page is rubbed prevents the plaster from 
adhering to the type. 

The melting-pot is a square vessel of iron about two inches 
and a half deep, having a separate lid, of which the four 
corners are cut off, the inner face being turned true, but the 
outer face hollow toward the center. A floating plate, of 
which the upper surface is turned, is placed at the bottom of 
the pot. Over the melting-pit is a crane with a rack, upon 
which a pair of nippers are made to run. These lay hold of 
ears upon the melting-pot, closing with its weight, and open- 
ing when relieved. The metal does not differ from type- 
metal, and must be sufficiently fluxed to flow easily, but not 
made too hot, or it will prove brittle. The melting-pot having 
been heated in the same oven with the mould, and conse- 
quently to the same temperature, the latter is placed within 
it, the face being turned down upon the floating-plate. A 
bar or other piece of iron is screwed down upon that part of 
the lid which is turned hollow ; and the whole being suspend- 
ed by the rack and crane, is swung over the melting-pit, and 
gradually let down into the metal, which flows gently into 
the pot through the openings left at the corners. The metal 
flowing slowly in gradually dispels all the air ; the mould 
immediately rises to the inner surface of the lid ; the float- 
ing-plate being specifically lighter than the metal, rises also 



100 Five Black Arts. 

to the edge of the mould ; consequentlj the metal which has 
run in between is of the exact thickness of the depth of the 
mould, the upper surface being the field upon which are the 
casts of the type, the under surface the smooth surface of 
the floating-plate, and the rest of the melting-pot being filled 
"with metal. The pot is allowed to remain immersed ten min- 
utes or a quarter of an hour, that is, until the air is supposed to 
be perfectly expelled. It is then drawn up, and swung to a 
board resting upon a trough of water, and there allowed to cool. 
The cooling is a process requiring much care and attention. 
It is obvious that unless the whole mass cool equally, the 
plate will be warped, and consequently spoiled ; it is equally 
clear that the heat will more readily radiate at the corners, 
and consequently that the center will remain fluid after the 
other parts are set, and that the contraction must be unequal. 
This is provided against by the lid having been turned hol- 
low in the center, and it will therefore allow the metal under 
it to cool more rapidly. The mass having been turned out 
from the pot, the metal under the plate is separated by a 
smart blow or two of the mallet ; the floating-plate will be 
readily disengaged, and the mould be removed from the cast. 
Some defects will invariably be found in a new plate ; but 
these are removed by the picker, who goes carefully over it, 
clearing away the picks from the face of the letter, and deep- 
ening the larger white lines with a graver, that they may not 
blacken in working at press ; for it must be remembered that 
the quadrats and spaces used in stereotyping are higher than 
those in movable-type printing. If the face of the plate has 
cooled evenly, and it is in other respects a successful cast, it 
is placed, the face inward, in a turning-lathe or planing-ma- 
chine, and the back rendered a plane parallel to the face ; 
the margins are then squared, and the edges flanched. The 
plate is now ready for use. If any errors or batters occur 
in the plates, they are cut out, and the corrections made with 
movable type let in and soldered at the back. 

A great improvement in the stereotype art was a number 
of years ago introduced by Mr. Thomas Allen, printer in 
Edinburgh, into his establishment, by which a number of 
plates are cast at once, whilst the risk of broken casts is con- 
siderably lessened. This is effected by means of a pot suf- 
ficiently deep to contain moulds placed in a perpendicular 



Printing — Stereotyping. 101 

position. The pot is an oblong square cast-iron box, -widen- 
ing toward the mouth, and having placed inside, at each end, 
a wedge-like block, of which one face is parallel to the side, 
while the other is perfectly vertical. On the vertical side 
are perpendicular grooves, at distances rather greater than 
the thickness of a stereotype mould. Into these grooves 
are inserted plates of malleable iron, by which the interior 
of the box or pot is partitioned into spaces sufficiently wide to 
admit with ease the plaster moulds. The moulds, when baked, 
being inserted into these spaces, a cross bar of metal is placed 
over the top, instead of a cover, which serves to prevent the 
moulds from being raised by the liquid metal flowing beneath 
them ; and it is then suspended upon the crane, and dipped 
into the metal-pit in the usual way. By this method not only 
the moulds are saved from all risk of breaking by being 
placed horizontally and pressed between the two broad surfaces 
of a float-block and cover, as in the method of single-page 
casting, but a number of plates are produced at one cast, and 
thus additional celerity is combined with greater certainty of 
sound plates. The plates of the Encyclopcedia Britannica^ 
which is the most extensive work ever stereotyped, were for the 
most part produced by this process, in pots containing each 
five moulds ; and it is especially advantageous for large plates, 
the risk of breakage by the old method increasing in a greater 
ratio than the increase in the size of the page. 

The plates are sometimes screwed down at the corners 
upon blocks of wood, the height of which is the difference 
between the thickness of the plate and the height of the 
type. This answers very well for jobs and standing adver- 
tisements ; but for ordinary book-work it is usual to have the 
blocks formed of several separate pieces of mahogany furnish- 
ed on one side and at one end with brass or iron catches (let in 
and screwed to the blocks), the upper part of which is turned 
over so as to take hold of the flange of the plate. But as 
wood is liable to warp and to other accidents, a plan has recent- 
ly been devised of making hollow blocks of type-metal of the 
requisite height and of different sizes, by means of which pages 
may be easily composed to any required size, the plates being 
fastened on by brass holders. At a small expense, once in- 
curred, the stereotype printer may furnish himself with 



102 Five Black Arts. 

blocks capable of being made up to suit works of any meas- 
ure. 

There are many smaller instruments requisite, which it is 
unnecessary to mention. The founder requires some prac- 
tical skill, which, however, it is not difficult to acquire ; and 
the excellence of the casts will depend upon his personal 
knack and observation. The best metal for stereotyping is 
composed of new metal and old type in moieties. The price 
of prepared metal is about 28s. per cwt.* The following, 
however, are proportions which may be used when the pre- 
pared metal cannot be procured : 

1. From five to eight parts lead, one of regulus, one fiftieth 
of block-tin. 

2. One seventh of pure regulus, six sevenths of lead. 
The best lead is that which comes from China, in the lining 
of tea-chests. 

The mixing of the metals is exceedingly injurious to the 
workman, and should be avoided whenever it is possible. 
The foundery should be thoroughly ventilated, as the fumes 
from the melting-pit, and the moisture and smell of the 
drying oven, are very noxious. 

In some cases stereotyping is of great advantage ; but 
chiefly in books of numbers, in which it is of the utmost 
importance that every figure should be correct. In this case 
the proofs must be read again and again, until the correctness 
is unquestionable ; when once stereotyped, there is no fear of 
alteration from the error of compositors or carelessness of 
readers, but the book remains the same for ever. Such 
works also are most expensive in getting up, and the cost of 
composition very much exceeds that of stereotyping. Books 
of logarithms may be especially mentioned, tables of longi- 
tude, indexes to maps, and other works, which being once 
written, remain unchangeably the same, such as ready reck- 
oners, interest tables, etc. ; or when it is found expedient to 
have duplicates of the work where large numbers are required, 
and it is necessary for speed to work on double-sized paper, 
the cast and the movable types are imposed together, and 
are worked side by side at the same moment, producing two 
copies instead of one. There is also another advantage, for 

* In the Uaited States, about $10 per cwt. 



Printing — Sterbotyping. 103 

the stereotype remains without further expense for another 
edition ; again, where it is expedient to send duplicate plates 
to other countries to be worked. 

Wood-cuts may be stereotyped with great advantage ; for 
a small cut which has cost several guineas to engrave may 
be multiplied indefinitely, and at a cost of only a few shillings. 

No printer should stereotype by the common process who 
wishes his type to be a credit to his house. The wear of the 
type in casting is very great, especially when low spaces, 
etc., are used; the gypsum is at best a fine powder, and 
grinds away the edge and face of the letter when rubbed in 
with the brush, in a frightful manner. The letter can never 
be entirely freed from the plaster, and will present a very 
dirty appearance ever after. The wear of a font of 1000 
lbs. weight, returned six times from the foundery, is greater 
than would occur in six years' constant fair usage ; besides 
which, the high spaces, quadrats and leads, are all extra ex- 
penses, for which the economical bookseller makes no remu- 
neration whatever. 

The plan of stereotyping Bibles and prayer-books has been 
nearly abandoned, and the entire sheets are kept standing, in 
movable types, at a great expense, by the Queen's printer, 
and the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. Before every 
edition, however, is worked, each sheet must undergo a care- 
ful reading, in order to guard against accidents which may 
have occurred since the last edition. 

Such is the process of stereotyping at this time in com- 
mon use, and which will probably continue in practice in 
provincial and colonial printing-offices, by reason of the 
readiness of the materials and the knowledge now acquired 
by the workmen. 

A greatly improved method has, however, been recently 
introduced by Messrs. Dellagana, by which all the incon- 
veniences incident to the existing system are obviated. The 
page is composed with the ordinary spaces, leads, etc., and 
there is therefore no additional charge for composition ; the 
destructive tampering with the face of the type is avoided ; 
the plaster-mould is not required ; and there is no necessity 
for reimposition, as the new moulds can be taken from the 
pages as they are imposed in the chases ; and the forms can 
be returned to the printer within an hour from the time of 



104 Five Black Arts. 

their being sent to the foundery. So great are the resources 
of this invention that the largest or the smallest pages can 
be cast with equal facility, and either plane or curved to suit 
the periphery of cylinder machines. The pages, for instance, 
of The London Times newspaper are each cast in a single 
plate, in a curved form to fib the cylinders of the great 
machines used in that establishment. The following is a 
brief account of the process : 

A page of a newspaper or a sheet of book-work (as im- 
posed), carefully cleaned and perfectly dry, is laid on an 
iron chest previously filled with hot water. A fine brush, 
having the whole of its surface slightly anointed with olive 
oil, is rubbed over the face of the type to remove any picks 
or other impurities from the pages, which are then ready for 
moulding. A substance, in appearance resembling two or 
three sheets of wrapper-paper pasted together, of a soft and 
pulpy nature (the matrix), understood to be composed of an 
earthy material very finely ground, and afterward felted to- 
gether, and which is not affected by heat, in a damp state, is laid 
smoothly on the face of the type, and carefully beaten in 
with a brush until every letter is indented into this substance, 
and the matrix is thus formed. The type, with the matrix 
unremoved, is taken to a press and subjected to a steady 
pressure, continued for two or three minutes. The matrix 
is then removed from the type, which may now be returned 
to the printer. Not more than ten minutes is required for 
these operations. The matrix is next laid upon a plate heated 
to 200° or 300°, and covered with a piece of flannel (as a 
non-conductor of heat and an absorbent of the moisture gen- 
erated in drying) upon which is placed a thin metal plate of 
the dimensions of the page or form, to keep the matrix fiat, 
[t remains on this hot plate about two minutes, and is then 
ready for casting. The matrix, with its face upward, is now 
placed in a "register" flat or curved, as the plates are 
required to be plane or convex. The register is formed of 
two iron plates, the inner surfaces of which are accurately 
planed ; these plates are joined together by hinges at the 
further end. The matrix is placed, face uppermost, on the 
lower of these plates, and is secured on three sides by an 
iron gauge, which varies in height according to the intended 
thickness of the plate about to be c.ast. The upper plate is 



Printing — Stereotyping. 105 

closed over, and the two, inclosing the matrix, are firmly 
clamped together by an iron bar which passes over, with 
a screw in the center, which presses the two plates upon 
the gauge. The register swings upon trunnions ; and thus 
prepared, is turned into a vertical position, and the metal, at 
a temperature of 500°, is poured in through a mouth. In 
one minute the metal is set sufficiently hard to bear removal, 
the register is brought back to a horizontal position, the upper 
plate is thrown back, and the cast and matrix are taken out 
and placed (the matrix uppermost) on an iron table, which 
is flat or curved like the register, otherwise the cast in cool- 
ing would contract or spring, and its flatness or curvature 
■would not be preserved. The matrix may now be carefully 
lifted ofi*, and, if required, again placed in the register for 
another cast. 

The curved casts for newspapers are fixed on the cooling 
table by four screws, and the dressing is performed by a tool 
on the lever principle, which cuts off the flange or waste piece 
of metal at the top of the page, and bevels it at the same 
time. For book-work, the under surface of the cast is planed, 
as in the ordinary mode. A little chiseling is required to 
lower the white and break lines, to prevent their blacking the 
paper when worked. The casts obtained by this process are 
remarkably true, and require little "bringing up." The 
matrix is uninjured by the casting, and may be used again 
for any number of casts, or preserved for future use. The 
power of multiplying casts from the same matrix is of im- 
mense advantage where large numbers are required to be 
printed in a short space of time. As before stated, a matrix 
and the first cast may be obtained in less than a quarter of 
an hour, and several subsequent casts will not require more 
than five or six minutes each. In half an hour, therefore, 
several machines may be at work simultaneously. 

It is of course not necessary that any cast should be taken 
from the matrix ; and therefore when a second edition of a 
book is doubtful, the matrix only need be made, and may be 
kept until required, at a cost of not more than one-third of 
a casting ; and when used, may be put by without inconven- 
ience, and another cast taken when the first is worked out 
or injured. 

In book-work also this process will be found of great ad- 



106 Five Black Arts. 

vantage, as compared with the charge of recomposition. 
The matrices of a work of 500 pages would occupy no more 
space than a ream of demy, and not weigh more than 
10 lbs. They will remain unchanged for years if preserved 
free from damp or water. 

The cost of casts by this process is about 10 per cent, less 
than by the ordinary mode ; and the proportions of lead and 
regulus used in the composition of the metal are those given 
above in recipe No. 2. 

The great excellence of the imperial Austrian printing 
establishment in the art of stereotyping should not escape 
mention. In the Exhibition of 1851 were some magnificent 
moulds taken from type by the electrotyping or galvano- 
plastic process. From these moulds other copies in relief 
were obtained by doubling the process, which are stated to 
produce beautiful work ; or casts in type-metal could be taken 
of great perfection. A curious specimen was also exhibited, 
the work of the Rubeland ducal foundery, of a stereotype- 
plate of cast-iron. 

OF POLYTYPAGE, AND OTHER METHODS OF PRODUCING 
PRINTING SURFACES ON METAL PLATES. 

Many considerable improvements in stereotyping are to be 
ascribed to French artists ; but stereotyping has never been 
a favorite with them, and they have rather exerted their 
inventive talents in a series of experiments which may be 
classed under the general name of polytypage. 

In 1780 Hoffman, a German residing in France, not satis- 
fied with his success in stereotyping, made many ingenious 
experiments in polytypage. Whilst he was thus engaged, a 
practical printer named Carez discovered a method which 
Hoffman afterward pursued. The page, after being composed 
in the ordinary manner, was attached, with the face down- 
ward, to the under side of a heavy block of wood, suspended 
from a long beam. Immediately under the page was an anvil, 
whereon was a tray of oiled paper into which the workmen 
poured a portion of type-metal, attentively watching the 
cooling. When the metal was on the point of setting, the 
page, block, and beam, were brought down with a very smart 
blow, forcing the face of the type into the setting metal, and 
producing a very sharp matrix ; which again was made to 



Printing — Polyttpage. 107 

take the place of the type upon the block, was struck in a 
similar manner upon the fused metal, and thus produced a 
perfect and excellent poljtjpe plate. This having been 
properly dressed at the edges and back, was affixed to the 
usual wooden raiser and made type height, and might be 
printed separately or in conjunction with movable type. 
Several casus might be made from the same mould. This 
process was designated cliche. 

Ign, a native of Alsace, who settled in Paris as a printer 
in 1784, availing himself of the discoveries made in the art 
of stereotyping, endeavored to extend them by inventing 
logotypy, or the art of uniting several characters into a single 
type. He printed on solid plates several sheets of his Jour- 
nal Polytype, and advertised Father Chenier's Eeeherches 
sur les Maures, 3 vols. 8vo, as a polytyped book; but being 
deprived of his printing-office in 1787 by a decree of the 
council, he was prevented from executing his design. 

In 1791 M. Gegembre made considerable improvements 
in the art of polytyping in printing the fifty-sous notes of the 
Caisse Patriotique. He caused the whole print of the notes 
to be engraved in relief upon a plate of steel, and this en- 
graving he pressed into a plate of copper, from which poly- 
type casts were taken. Any number of these casts could be 
taken from the copper mould, and if by chance the copper 
mould became injured, a nevf one could be readily made from 
the steel engraving. 

When the revolutionary government commenced issuing 
assignats, it became necessary to have an immense number 
of plates to work the enormous quantity required of these 
documents. A design having been approved of, artists were 
employed to engrave three hundred fac-similes. Of course, 
if three hundred so-called fac-similes could be engraved, other 
artists would find no difficulty in engraving another hundred, 
nor could even the bank-officers tell which document was 
printed from a forged fac-simile and which from the plates 
engraved by their authority. The consequence was an utter 
want of confidence in the government paper. To remedy 
this, the committee of assignats caused many experiments to 
be instituted for the production of plates which should be not 
only imitative and similar, but pro re identical. The plan 
adopted was the engraving a plate in intaglio on steel, from 



108 Five Black Arts. 

which copper matrices were obtained in relief. From these 
perfect fac-similes of the original engraving were struck and 
were worked by the roller-press in the manner of copper- 
plates. But it was a great defect in this process, that the 
air compressed within the hollows of the letters frequently 
destroyed the form in the reproduction. Upon the suppres- 
sion of assignats this establishment was broken up ; but some 
of the plates and matrices are preserved in the public reposi- 
tories of France. 

Polytyping, as now practiced in England, is confined to 
the production of casts from metal plates in intaglio and from 
wood-cuts. Instead of the cumbrous machinery employed by 
Carez, a fly-press is used, the wood-cut is fixed upon what 
may be called the platen, and a tray containing semi-fluid 
metal is placed upon the table of the press immediately under 
the cut to be matriced. By a slow motion the cut is im- 
pressed into the metal, and an intaglio matrix is produced. 
The matrix is then attached to a drop stamp to perform the 
cliche process, and by the rapid descent of the stamp with 
the matrix attached into a tray of molten metal, a poly type 
in relief is obtained. The type-founders have adopted this 
process for the production of casts for their ornamental de- 
signs ; and Mr. Bramston has practiced this mode so success- 
fully that he is able to take fac-simile polytype casts of the 
most elaborately engraved wood-cuts, without in the slightest 
degree injuring the original. 

A method of producing raised surfaces for the purposes of 
printing has of late years been extensively used in Paris and 
London, chiefly for forming maps and rough designs for the 
cheap illustrated press. The art is of French origin, but has 
been patented in England. In a patent granted in 1853 to 
Mr. Vizetelly it is described for "improvements for produc- 
ing plates for printing surfaces, by which the manipulatory 
process of engraving is superseded." 

A plate of highly-polished zinc, copper, or steel, is thor- 
oughly rubbed over with very fine pounce powder moistened 
with water, and then with a soft dry piece of linen it is again 
rubbed until no greasy appearance remains on the surface, 
which is now in a fit state to receive the transfer. 

Where the engraving has been recently printed, say within 
a month, the transfer is thus eSected : The print is soaked 



Printing — Polytypaqe. 109 

for five rainutes in a flat dish containing a liquid composed of 
seven parts of water, one of azotic acid, and six drops of phos- 
phoric acid. It is then taken out and placed between two 
sheets of blotting-paper, to absorb the superfluous moisture, 
after which it is laid on the prepared plate and covered with 
a sheet of soft paper, and subjected to the strong pressure of 
the lithographic press. When the transfer is thus efiected, 
the plate is washed with a sponge moistened in a solution of 
gum-arabic, slightly acidulated with nitric acid ; this prep- 
aration having remained on the plate for five minutes, is 
sponged off" with clean water. While the plate is still wet, 
a lithographic roller charged with ink composed of bitumen 
of Judaea, powdered very fine with a muller and mixed with 
linseed oil, is passed over it. The linseed oil must be of the 
purest quality, and be boiled for at least an hour, and after- 
ward filtered through a felt bag containing some animal black. 
For zinc plates, lithographic transfer-ink and melted virgin 
■wax, well mixed and ground together, must be substituted. 
When the plate is well rolled over with this ink, it will be 
observed that the transfer only has taken up the ink, the 
parts of the plate where the lines of the print do not occur 
having no power to take it up. While the ink is still wet, 
some resin, ground to an impalpable powder, is distributed 
over the plate with a piece of cotton wool or a camel's hair 
brush, care being taken that it adheres to the inked trans- 
fer only, and not to the other parts of the plate. The plate 
is now placed over a spirit-lamp, and gradually heated until 
it becomes luke-warm, in which state it is allowed to remain 
undisturbed for at least two hours ; if expedition is not re- 
quired, it will be better not to disturb the plate for twelve 
hours, as the resin and ink will then have thoroughly com- 
bined, and more completely protect the portions of the plate 
covered by the transfer from the corroding action of the acid, 
by which the surface in relief is produced. Before the plate 
is subjected to this " biting" process, it is necessary to cover 
its back with a varnish or other substance, to protect it from 
the action of the acid. When this is done, it is placed in a 
slanting position, and a liquid composed of nitric acid, diluted 
to about 4° Reaumur, for zinc and steel plates, and to about 12° 
for coppers, to which is added a table-spoonful of spirits of 
wine to every half-pint of acidulated water, is applied with a 



110 Five Black Arts. 

clean sponge to the surface of the plate. This bathing is con- 
tinued for a quarter of an hour, and pure water is then poured 
over the plate until the acid is entirely washed off. The plate 
is then again sponged over with the shghtlj-acidulated gum- 
water, reinked, submitted to the action of the acidulated 
water, and washed with pure water as above described ; and 
these operations are repeated four or five times, until the ex- 
posed portions of the plate are so much bitten away by the 
acid as to leave the transfer sufficiently in relief to be printed 
from. 

The " whites," i. e. the blank spaces in the engraving, must 
be lowered or removed to prevent their receiving the ink in 
process of printing, and blacking the paper. This is effected 
by covering the surface of the raised lines of the transfer, 
and the sides also where practicable, with engraver's varnish, 
which is composed of bitumen of Judsea dissolved in essence 
of turpentine, with the addition of lamp-black to make it of 
a proper consistency, and allowed to stand two hours before it 
is used. The plate is then bathed with the solution of acid- 
ulated water and spirits of wine, and washed as before de- 
scribed ; but in this operation a stronger solution is used, 
being 8° instead of 4°. Where the whites are very large, 
essence of spikenard (aspic) is substituted for essence of tur- 
pentine, or they may be lowered by scrapers or gouges, or cut 
out with a fine saw. Great care must be taken that the bi- 
tumen is entirely dissolved, and that the varnish is made of 
the proper consistency. 

A raised printing surface being now produced, the plate is 
cleaned with turpentine and well rubbed over with charcoal, 
after which it may be mounted on raisers to type height, and 
used as a stereotype cast. 

When an old print is to be transferred, it is treated in the 
manner commonly employed by lithographic printers prior to 
making a transfer. 

Anastatic printing is a process by which a print, whether 
from type or a copperplate, maybe reproduced without draw- 
ing or engraving. The print is saturated with a strong so- 
lution of nitric acid ; it is then placed between sheets of blot- 
ting-paper, and the superfluous fluid absorbed ; after which it 
is laid, face downward, upon a polished plate of zinc, and 
another placed over it. The plates are then passed between 



Printinq — For the Blind. Ill 

iron rollers, and subjected to great pressure. The nitric acid 
is thus squeezed out upon the zinc, except in those parts which 
are protected bj the ink of the old print. The acid bites 
away the zinc, and a rough surface is produced, the protected 
parts continuing bright and unaffected. The plate is then 
wetted with a solution of gum in water. The corroded sur- 
faces retain the fluid, while the unaffected portions remain 
dry. A roller charged with the ink used by copperplate 
printers is then rolled over the plate : the ink covering the 
dry and being repelled by the wet surfaces, This is repeated 
until the lines of the print are well covered with the ink — 
a process which is rapidly effected if the ink of the original 
print is fresh, and has parted with a portion of its oil under 
the pressure of the rollers. Impressions may now be read- 
ily taken in the same manner as lithographic prints. 

PRINTING FOR THE BLIND. 

The invention of printing for the blind forms a new era in 
the history of literature. In European countries, one indi- 
vidual in every 1200 or 1400 of the entire population is blind, 
and in America one in every 2000. To open up to this large 
and unfortunate class such a source of profit and pleasure as 
reading could afford was long considered very desirable, and 
also very doubtful ; but while, of late years, embossed books 
have very rapidly increased, it is exceedingly gratifying to 
find that blind readers have far more rapidly multiplied. The 
credit of this invention belongs to France. In 1784 Valen- 
tine Haiiy printed the first book at Paris with raised letters, 
and proved to the world that those for whom such books were 
intended could easily be taught to read with their fingers. 
He seems to have caught the hint from a blind pianist of "Vi- 
enna, who distinguished the keys of her instrument by the sense 
of touch. After many experiments as to the form of his raised 
letters, he at last chose a character a little approaching the 
Italic. A new institution was at once established — Institu- 
tion Royale des Jeunes Aveugles — and Haiiy was placed at 
the head of it. Twenty-four of his pupils exhibited their at- 
tainments in reading, writing, arithmetic, music, and geog- 
raphy, before the king and the royal family at "Versailles, on 
the 26th December, 1786, to the very great delight of those 



112 Five Black Arts. 

high personages. In 1814, when Haiiy was pensioned off, 
Dr. Guilli^ was chosen in his stead. This enterprising direc- 
teur-general modified Ilaiij's letters, and prosecuted the pub- 
lication of embossed books with renewed vigor. Still, how- 
ever, very little progress was made toward the extension of 
Haiiy's system ; and their books could only be read by those 
possessing a very delicate touch. In 1806 M. Haiiy estab- 
lished schools for the blind in Germany and St, Petersburg, 
but they have made very slow progress. It was in Scotland 
and the United States that improvements were first made in 
embossed typography. To Mr. James Gall of Edinburgh be- 
longs tlie merit of reviving and improving this very useful 
art. After canvassing every form of letter, he at last adopt- 
ed his angular alphabet. Before 1826, when Mr. Gall be- 
gan his experiments, not a single blind person using the 
English language could read by embossed printing. On the 
28th September, 1827, he published A First Booh for 
TeaeJiing the Art of Reading to the Blind, the first book 
printed for the blind in the English language. In October, 
1834, this zealous individual published in a perfected alpha- 
bet The Gospel hy St. John, for the Blind. The text, which 
was embossed, and, unlike his former effort, printed not with 
wooden but with metallic types, consisted of 141 pages, with 
27 lines on a page of 70 square inches. This book was 
counted a great improvement, but it was objected that the 
types were too angular. He afterward printed a number of 
books with serrated edges. It is unquestionably to Mr. Gall, 
more than to any other man, that the interest in the educa- 
tion of the blind was awakened throughout Great Britain 
and America. While Mr. Gall was engaged in perfecting 
his plan in this country. Dr. S. G. Howe, of the Perkins 
Institution, Boston, United States, was busily engaged in de- 
veloping his system. In 1833 Dr. Howe began, like Gall, 
by taking Haiiy's invention as the basis of his system, and 
soon effected those improvements upon it which have given 
so wide a fame to the Boston press. He chose the common 
Roman letter of the lower case, reducing it by cutting off 
the flourishes, etc., until it occupied but a space and a half 
instead of three. This alphabet remains unchanged. So 
rapid was his progress, that in 1836 he printed in relief the 
whole of the New Testament for the first time in any Ian- 



Printing — For the Blind. 113 

guage, in 4 small quarto volumes, comprising 624 pages, for 
four dollars. More than twelve times this amount has now 
been printed, and seventeen of the American States have 
adopted Dr. Howe's method. 

The Society of Arts in Edinburgh awarded a medal, on 
the 31st of May, 1837, to Dr. Fry of London for the inven- 
tion of an alphabet, which seems, however, to have been in 
use in Philadelphia since 1833. . Mr. Alston of Glasgow im- 
proved upon Fry's alphabet, by reducing the size of the let- 
ters, and sharpening the embossing. In 1840 Mr. Alston 
published the entire Old Testament in 15 quarto volumes, of 
2535 pages, and 37 lines to a page, in double pica type. 
Alston, in his just pride, designated this " the first Bible ever 
printed for the blind; " in which he was wrong, however, for 
Boston had claimed the honor years before. Some 70 dis- 
tinct volumes have been printed by the Glasgow press ; but 
since the death of Alston, on the 20th of August, 1846, it 
has almost ceased to work. Since 1837 it has supplied Eng- 
land, Ireland, and Scotland with embossed books in Roman 
type. The best of all the arbitrary systems is that of T. 
M. Lucas of Bristol, who set it on foot about 1835, and which 
" The London Society for Teaching the Blind to Read" has 
been gradually improving since its establishment in 1839. In 
May, 1838, " The London and Blackheath Association for 
Embossing the Scriptures" adopted the phonetic method of 
James Hartley Frerc. A cheap plan of embossing or stereo- 
typing was devised by Mr. Frere in 1839. His books read 
from left to right, and back, after the ancient Greek /3oi;- 
rf-poyrj^o'v writing. Mr. Moon, of the Brighton Blind Asylum, 
has slightly improved on Mr. Frere's method. Dr. Howe's 
typography is judged, however, to be superior to the British 
both in cheapness and in size. There are at present no less than 
five different systems of typography in use in Great Britain. 

The following table shows the results of the six systems of 
printing for the blind used in the English language, taking 
the New Testament as a standard of comparison : 
8 



114 



Five Black Arts. 



Systems. 


No. of 
Ycl3. 


Size. 


No. of 
Pages. 


No. of 
Lines in 
a Page. 


No. of 
Square 
Inch. ia 
a Page. 


Price. 


The New Testament- 
Howe's 


2 
4 
8 
9 
8 
9 


4to. 
Ob. 4to. 


430 
623 

"*84i' 
723 


'"42" 

28 
27 

'"25"' 


117 
90 
70 
70 
110 
110 


L. s. d. 
16 


Alston's 


2 


Gall's 


2 


Lucas's 


2 
2 10 




4 10 







OTHER PROCESSES. 

To the magnificent establishment of the imperial printing- 
office at Vienna we owe the introduction of several pro- 
cesses, which, though not founded on the use of type, belong 
to the art of printing. The description of these new arts is 
derived from the Reports of Jurors of the Exhibition of 
1851.* 

G-aloano-plastic Process. — The Austrian department con- 
tained some extraordinary prints of fossil fishes, which were 
produced by the following process : By means of successive 
layers of gutta percha applied to the stone inclosing the pet- 
rified fish a mould is obtained, which being afterward sub- 
mitted to the action of a galvanic battery, is quickly covered 
with coatings of copper, forming a plate upon which all the 
marks of the fish are reproduced in relief, and which, when 
printed at the common press, gives a result upon the paper 
identical with the object itself. 

Crolvanography. — The artist covers a plate of silvered cop- 
per with several coats of a paint composed of any oxide — such 
as that of iron, burnt terra sienna, or black-lead — ground with 
linseed oil. The substance of these coats is thick or thin ac- 
cording to the intensity to be given to the lights or shades. 
The plate is then submitted to the action of the galvanic bat- 
tery, from which another plate is obtained reproducing an in- 
taglio copy, with all the unevenness of the original painting. 
This is an actual copperplate resembling an aquatint engrav- 
ing. It may be touched up by the engraving-tool. This 
process has been improved upon by outlines etched in the 

* At London. 



Printing — Nature. 115 

usual manner, and the tones laid on with a roulette. A 
galvano-plastic copy of this sunk plate is obtained. On this 
second raised plate the artist completes his picture by means 
of chalks and Indian ink, and puts in the lights and shades; 
from this a second galvano-plastic copy is produced. This 
second copy or sunk plate, the third in the order of procedure, 
serves, after being touched up, for printing from, in the cop- 
perplate-press. 

G-ahanoglypJiy. — Upon a plate of zinc coated with var- 
nish a drawing is etched ; then ink or varnish is rolled over. 
The ink adheres only to the parts it touches, every applica- 
tion when dry raising the coating and consequently deepen- 
ing the etched lines — a galvanic battery produces a plate in 
relief, which is printed at the common press. 

Chemitypy. — A polished zinc plate is covered with an 
etching-ground. The etching is bitten in with diluted aqua- 
fortis. Remove the etching-ground, and carefully wash out 
the aquafortis. Heat the plate thus cleansed over a spirit- 
lamp, after covering with filings of a fusible metal, until fu- 
sible metal has filled all the lines of the engraving. When 
cold, scrape down to level of zinc plate until none of the metal 
remains but what has entered into the engraving. Place 
compound plate in solution of mui'iatic acid ; and as of the 
two metals one is positive the other negative, the zinc alone 
is eaten away by the acid, and the fusible metal which had 
filled the lines of the engraving is left in relief, and may be 
printed by the common press. 

Paneiconography. — On a polished plate of zinc draw with 
lithographic crayon or ink, or transfer impressions from lithog- 
raphy, wood engraving, or copperplates. The thickness of 
the drawn lines is increased by repeated rollings or powdered 
resin. For relief-block, place plate in trough of very dilute 
sulphuric or hydrochloric acid. The acid eats away the 
unprotected parts of the plate, and leaves raised lines of the 
protected parts. 

NATURE-PRINTING. 

Mr. Henry Bradbury, who has had a principal share in 
introducing this beautiful process into England, describes it 
as a method of producing impressions of plants and other 



116 Five Black Arts. 

natural objects, in a manner so truthful that onlj a close in- 
spection reveals the fact of their being copies. So deeply 
sensible to the touch are the impressions, that it is difficult to 
persuade those who are unacquainted with the manipulation 
that they are the production of the printing-press. The 
process, in its application to the reproduction of botanical 
subjects, represents the size, form, and color of the plant, and 
all its most minute details, even to the smallest fibers of the 
roots. The distinguishing feature of the process, compared 
with other modes of producing engraved surfaces for printing 
purposes, consists, firstly, in imprinting natural objects — such 
as plants, mosses, sea-weeds, feathers, and embroideries — into 
plates of metal, causing, as it were, the objects to engrave 
themselves by pressure ; and, secondly, in being able to take 
such casts or copies of the impressed plates as can be printed 
from at the ordinary copperplate-press. 

The art is by no means new in idea, many persons having 
attempted something analogous to the present process, and 
produced results which were imperfect, merely because science 
had not yet discovered an art necessary to its practical devel- 
opment. It is to the discovery of electrotyping that the exist- 
ing art of nature-printing is due. 

The progress of the art, and the persons to whose ingenuity 
the steps were severally due, are stated by Mr. Bradbury 
thus: 

Professor Kniphof of Erfurt took impressions from leaves, 
etc., which had been colored with lamp-black, printers' ink, 
etc., 1728-57. 

Kyhl, a goldsmith of Copenhagen, took copies of natural 
objects in plates of metal between two steel rollers. These 
were not for the purposes of printing, but for reproduction of 
embossing and ornamentation in metal. 1833. 

In 1851 Dr. Ferguson Branson of Sheffield read a paper 
before the Society of Arts, in which he detailed some experi- 
ments in nature-printing. He had taken impressions from 
plants, etc., in gutta percha, for the purpose of having them 
printed. The experiment failed through the softness of the 
material. Dr. Branson then bethought himself of the elec- 
trotype process ; but appears to have found it too tedious and 
costly, and he abandoned the idea. 

In 1849 Professor Leydolt of Vienna availed himself of 



Feinting — Nature. 1 : 7 

the facilities afforded by the imperial printing-office to carry 
out experiments in the representation of flat objects of min- 
eralogy, —such as agates, fossils, and petrifactions, — and 
obtained great results. Soon after, Haidinger and Abbate 
suggested, the former the reproduction of plants, etc., and 
the latter the representation by this means of different sorts 
of ornamental woods on woven fabHcs, paper, and plain wood ; 
and lastly, Andrew Worring, of the imperial printing-office, 
Vienna, perfected the application of these processes to print- 
ing, 1853. 

These circumstances are dwelt upon at some length, because 
nature-printing is yet in its infancy, and appears capable of 
development to a degree at which it will be an impressorial 
art of greater importance than any which has been invented 
since the art of printing itself. Worring's services were so 
highly estimated that the emperor rewarded him with a mu- 
nificent gift, and with the Order of Merit. 

The plant, perfectly dry, or any other suitable subject, is 
placed on a plate of fine rolled lead, the surface of which has 
been polished by planing. The plate and subject are then 
passed between rollers, by the pressure of which the subject 
is forced into the surface of the lead. The leaden plate is 
then subjected to a moderate heat, by the action of which the 
subject is loosened from its bed and easily removed. This 
mould is then subjected to the galvano-plastic process, the 
second cast being a perfect fac-simile of the leaden mould. 
When the subject to be printed is of one color only, that 
pigment is rubbed in, and any superfluity removed ; but 
when it is of two or more colors, the process is simple, but, 
it is believed, perfectly novel in any process of printing here- 
tofore practiced. In the case, for instance, of flowering 
plants, having stems, roots, leaves, and flowers, the plan 
adopted in the inking of the plate is to apply the darkest 
color, which generallj'' happens to be that of the roots, first ; 
the superfluous color is cleaned off; the next darkest color, 
such, perhaps, as that of the stems, is then applied, the 
superfluous color of which is also cleaned off; this mode is 
continued until every part of the plant in the copperplate has 
received the right tint. In this state, before the plate is 
printed, the color in the different parts of the copper looks 
as if the plant were imbedded in the metal. The plate thus 



118 Five Black Arts. 

charged, ^vith the paper laid over it, is placed upon a copper- 
plate-press, the upper roller of which is covered with five or 
six layers of blanket of compact fine texture. The effect of 
the pressure is, that all the colors are printed by one impres- 
sion ; for when the paper is removed the plant is seen quite 
perfect, highly embossed, with the roots, stems, and other 
parts, each of its proper tint. 

The great national work which the Austrian establishment 
has produced as the exemplar of the new art is truly imperial. 
The Physiotypia Plantarum Austriacarum consists of five 
volumes large folio, containing 500 plates (about 600 plants), 
with a quarto volume of plates and text. The first produc- 
tion of the English press, though it will bear no comparison 
in extent Avith the imperial magnificence of the Austrian 
work, fully equals it in beauty of execution. It is The Ferns 
of Great Britain and Ireland, by Thomas Moore, edited by 
Dr. Lindley, imperial folio, with 51 plates. It is printed by 
Mr. Bradbury. 

PRINTING IN COLORS. 

One of the most beautiful aids to typography, the art of 
printing in colors, has been unduly neglected in this country ; 
at least so far as relates to the embellishing works of ordinary 
excellence with vignettes, capitals, tail-pieces, and other 
devices of fancy, in beautiful tints, in the manner of the 
early typographers. It is true that some very beautiful 
works, illustrated with remarkable richness of design and 
color, have been produced ; but these have been executed 
rather as examples of the beautiful in art than as books, — the 
work of the artist has been the principal object, and the work of 
the author the occasion and vehicle. In other works, chiefly 
ecclesiastical, the object has been to reproduce in facsimile 
the rich illuminations of the monkish scribes. But as regards 
the average printing — the literature of the day — the art of 
printing in colors has been very much neglected. This may 
very easily be accounted for. To print in two colors occu- 
pies more than twice the time necessary to print in one ; and 
it also requires more skill and ingenuity. These unfortunately 
must be paid for ; and this pecuniary consideration is suf- 
ficient to banish from our pages this lovely art. So did not 



Printing — In Colors. 119 

our forefathers ; they took pride in choosing the most tasteful 
designs, the most harmonious colors, to illuminate their pro- 
ductions, and beguile the reader into study by the illusive 
charms of gold, and blue, and crimson. Fortunately, either 
time was of little value, or the exclusive possession of the 
market enabled them to demand remunerating prices for the 
time thus well bestowed ; but in the bustle and competition 
of our more mercantile days, time is money, and blue and 
gold, scarlet and green, give way to the equally useful but 
infinitely less beautiful uniformity of unredeemed black. To 
a country printer, however, some knowledge of color-printing 
would be of advantage, because, as his fonts of type are 
more limited, he can create unlimited variety by a judicious 
use of colors in job-work : moreover, as he has usually much 
more time upon his hands, his ingenuity would have ample 
scope for the production of small works of vertu^ in a taste 
which cannot be indulged by the denizens of a busy me- 
tropolis. 

Except in the execution of works of a very high order, 
and the imitation of intricate and delicate patterns, printing 
in colors requires no addition to the ordinary accomplishment 
of printing, other than considerable ingenuity and a little 
practice in preparing the colors. The latter may, it is true, 
be purchased of the ink-maker, prepared for use ; but the 
charge for them is enormous, and they require constant replace- 
ment, whilst it is not possible to have on hand every variety 
of tint. By the purchase of the most simple materials from 
the oil-shop, the ingenious printer has at his hand every color 
that fancy can require, at the most moderate cost, without 
waste or delay. The appliances are few and cheap : a muller, 
a marble slab, and the pallet-knife ; the materials, a can of 
printers' varnish, to be purchased of the ink-maker, which 
will keep any length of time, and the raw colors hereafter 
given, which may be purchased from time to time ; care, 
however, being taken that they are of the best quality, or 
they will fade and turn rusty in a short time, and be a de- 
formity instead of an ornament to the work. 

Useful tints of red may be prepared of orange lead, ver- 
milion, burnt sienna, Venetian red, Indian red, and lake. 
Vermilion is the most brilliant of these reds ; but its beauty 
depends very much upon the particular parcel used. The 



120 Five Black Arts. 

pale vermilion is best for a bright tint, as the dark, when 
mixed with the varnish, produces a dull red. Orange lead 
and vermilion ground together produces a very bright tint, 
which is more permanent than vermilion alone. 

Yellows are prepared with yellow ocher, gamboge, and 
chromate of lead. Of these, the brightest is the chrome ; 
yellow ocher, when mixed with the varnish, produces a very 
'dull tint. 

Blues are made from indigo, Prussian blue, and Antwerp 
blue. Of these, indigo is exceedingly dark, and not very 
easily lightened. Prussian blue is a very useful color; Ant- 
werp blue is very light. 

Grreens may be produced from a mixture of any of the 
blues and yellows, as gamboge and Prussian blue, chromate 
of lead and Prussian blue. These may be mixed in any 
proportions until the required tint is produced ; but it must 
be remembered that the varnish has a considerable yellow 
tinge, and will produce a decided effect upon the mixture. 
With a slight portion of Antwerp blue it will, without the 
mixture of any of the yellows, produce a decidedly greenish 
tinge. 

Purples of any degree of richness are made by judiciously 
mixing reds and blues. 

Ssepia produces a nice brown tint, burnt umber a very hot 
brown, raw umber a much lighter brown, bister a brighter 
still. Neutral tints may be obtained by mixing Prussian 
blue, lake, and gamboge. In fact, every pigment that 
painters use can also be used in printing, avoiding, as much 
as possible, all heavy colors. In truth, if the printer is 
desirous of imitating any particular color, or of producing 
any particular tint, he cannot do better than consult the 
nearest artist in oil or water colors (oil in preference), or in 
default of that, the neighboring house-painter. 

The necessary colors having been procured, the method of 
preparing them is very simple. Each must first be well 
ground by the muller upon the slab, even although they may 
have been purchased well powdered. The color should then 
be well mixed with the pallet-knife with the varnish, until 
the pigment has attained the required consistency, which will 
vary with the quality of the work to be executed ; for if it 
be a posting-bill or coarse job, the ink should be very thin, 



Printing — In Colors. 121 

and consequently a much larger proportion of varnish should 
be used. If, however, the ^York be a wood-cut, or in small 
tjpe, the pigment should be made as thick as possible. If 
the color required be a compound, the predominant tint 
should be first mixed with the varnish, and the lighter tint 
added in small quantities, until the exact shade required be 
produced. Thus, if the color be a dark green, the blue 
should be mixed up first, and the yellow added ; but if it be 
a very light green, then the yellow should be first applied, 
and the blue added. If the tint desired be exceedingly light, 
it will be found that the quantity of raw material to be 
employed will not make the mixture sufiiciently thick to be 
applied to the type or wood-block : in this case whitening is 
added to thin colors, and dry white-lead to the heavier, in 
considerable quantities, which must be adjusted in the course 
of mixing. To insure thorough combination, the mixture 
should be scraped into a corner of the slab, and a very small 
portion of it spread with the pallet-knife, and well ground 
with the muller until no specks or lumps appear, then scraped 
up and placed in another corner. This should especially be 
done when white-lead is used, as it will be found that every 
little lump when crushed will produce a white streak upon 
the slab. If this be not carefully done, independently of its 
tendency to clog the type, it will very materially alter the 
tint. When the pigment seems sufficiently mixed, it is better 
to bray it out with the muller instead of the usual brayer, and 
grind again each particular portion immediately before it is used . 
Colors may be worked either with a ball or a roller. If the 
job be large and coarse, and the ink consequently thin, the 
roller will answer every purpose ; but if it be small, and 
requiring much nicety in the manipulation, decidedly with a 
ball ; but in either case the ink should be well distributed, 
and the form well beaten or rolled. When two or more 
colors are employed, they must be worked at as many differ- 
ent times. In this case extreme nicety in the register and 
justification is required, in order that every color may 'fall in 
its just place, without overlaying any other tint employed in the 
print. This would be a great dis-sight in any case, but most 
especially where the combination of colors would produce a 
third ; as, for instance, if any part of a blue line should 
unfortunately fall upon a yellow, a green outline would be 



122 Five Black Arts. 

the result. The simplest way to guard against this is to have 
the wood-blocks all cut to precisely the same size, with the 
print in the proper place upon each ; when, therefore, the 
first color has been worked, the form is unlocked, the block 
taken out, and the second block inserted ; it then falls at 
once into its proper position. If the form consist of type, 
each line should be carefully composed in its proper body ; 
that is, if three colors be employed for as many different 
lines in pica, small pica, and long primer, the one to be first 
worked should be composed in pica letters, the other lines in 
small pica and long primer quadrats. When the second line 
is to be worked, its quadrats should be taken out and letters 
inserted, while the type of the first line should be removed 
and quadrats substituted ; and so of the third line. The 
points on the tympan must never be moved. It is clear, 
therefore, that if the paper be placed upon the same point- 
holes as before, and if the form has never been moved, the 
new line cannot fail to fall in its proper place. In these cases 
the paper must never be suffered to dry ; indeed the sooner 
each color succeeds the other the better. If it be covered 
with a wet blanket, and the edges well sprinkled, the danger 
will be little ; but if it should dry and shrink in the slightest 
degree, it will be impossible to obtain register. For printing 
red-letter days in almanacs and the rubrics in prayer-books 
(an almost extinct practice), an especial type is used called 
rubrical ; it is cast about an m higher than ordinary type. 
The black is first worked, quadrats having been inserted in 
the places of the red-letter, which are subsequently with- 
drawn and the rubrical type inserted. But as, in so small 
an insertion in so large a body this process does not attain 
any very good register, and is expensive withal, the red-letter 
days have been abandoned, and some other distinguishing 
type (generally old English or black) has been substituted, 
which suflficiently indicates the day. It would not be possi- 
ble here to give sufiicient instructions to enable the printer to 
execute landscapes, portraits, and other delicate subjects, in 
various colors and shades. The difference between this and 
other color-printing consists mainly in the superior individual 
skill and ingenuity of the artist, the excellence and truth of 
his engravings, and the superiority of his apphances. In 
truth, before the printer can produce any great effect, he 



Printing — In Colors. 123 

must be excellently qualified as a painter, ■which it is not the 
province of an article on printing to teach. It -will be suf- 
ficient to state that the lighter and more extensive tints, and 
especially those in which transparent colors are used, are 
worked first ; that the color is gradually deepened by success- 
ive blocks until the required effects are produced ; and that 
the outline is printed last, which has the effect of giving 
sharpness and finish to the design. 

The curious reader is referred to Mr. Savage's beautiful 
book on Decorative Printing, and to the many admirable 
productions of Mr. Baxter and Mr. Vizetelly. Nor should 
the accurate work and beautiful colors of Mr. Delarue's 
playing-cards be passed over without notice. To Mr. Dela- 
rue, indeed, the revival of color-printing in England as a 
practical art is greatly due. 

The lottery system and the stamp duties gave extensive 
employment to the color-printer, and also gave occasion to a 
process which is denominated " compound plate-printing." 
The effects are produced by an ingenious system of mechan- 
ism, by which several plates are made to separate for the pur- 
pose of receiving the colors, and to combine with perfect ac- 
curacy, for the purpose of transferring these colors to the 
paper by a single impression. This process is in dailj use 
at the stamp and excise offices, and the most familiar exam- 
ples are to be seen in the intricate patterns printed on the 
labels of reams of paper, or those of patent medicines. The 
printing is effected by the cylinder printing-machine with the 
greatest rapidity. 

There is no difficulty in printing in gold ; it is within the 
power of any typographer. The type is composed and made 
ready at press in the usual manner. Take the best printer's 
varnish, grind it to a thick consistency with burnt sienna or 
brown umber ; reduce this with gold-size, the same as that 
used by gilders and japanners. The first admixture is ne- 
cessary because it has been found that the umber will not 
combine with the size. The type is then rolled with this 
compound in the same manner that ordinary ink is applied, 
and ihe impression is taken upon the paper. Leaf-gold is 
then laid over it with a piece of cotton-wool, and pressed 
lightly upon it. When the varnish has had time to set, 
a piece of cotton-wool is rubbed steadily over the part 



124 Five Black Arts. 

printed, and the superfluous leaf is thereby removed, leav- 
ing the gold adhering to the varnish. The print should then 
be passed between steel rollers, or hot-pressed — care being 
taken in the latter process that the plates be not too hot, or 
a dull drossy surface -will be produced. The sharpness of 
the print -will vary with the judgment of the printer in the 
quantity of sizing applied to the type ; for if the press-work 
be bad, the print will be bad also. For inferior gold-printing 
bronze-powder is extensively used. For this the varnish is 
made very much thicker than for gold : the method of print- 
ing is the same. After the impression has been given, the 
powder is brushed over the print, and adheres thereto, whilst 
the superfluity is easily removed. In printing the golden 
" Coronation Sun" with this powder, a very distressing dis- 
ease arose, — the hair became perfectly green, and the men 
■were very seriously affected ; great care should therefore be ta- 
ken that particles of the powder be not allowed to fly about the 
room. Dutch gold cannot be used as a substitute for gold-leaf. 
When all these appliances cannot readily be obtained, very 
fair gold-printing may be produced by the following process : 
Let the surface of the type be heated by any convenient 
means — as by laying upon it for a space a heated metal plate 
— and then cover it carefully with leaf-gold by a ball of cot- 
ton-wool. Having carefully sifted dry white-of-egg or resin, 
finely pulverized, over the surface of the paper, place it on 
the tympan, and bring it gently down upon the type. Dwell 
upon the pull. The leaf-gold will be found perfectly adher- 
ent to the impression on the paper, and the superfluous part 
may be brushed off. The sheet, after drying, should then be 
hot-pressed. Some observation is required to ascertain the 
proper heat to be given to the type : if it be insufficient, the 
gold transfer will be imperfect and the tint light; if too great 
(of which there should be no danger) the color will be dull. 

BANK-NOTE PRINTING, 

The Bank of England notes were formerly printed from 
steel-plates ; but in 1853 the Bank adopted the surface or 
letter-press mode of printing. The plates are produced by 
the electrotype process. An original is first engraved in 
metal in relief. This original is subjected to the galvano- 



Printing — Bank-Note. 125 

plastic process, bj which a matrix is obtained, and from this 
matrix a second cast is obtained in relief, a Tperfect facsimile 
of the original engraved plate. From this plate the bank- 
notes are printed. The metal of Avhich these plates are 
formed is exceedingly hard, frequently yielding nearly one 
million impressions -without being worn out. The original 
engraving is never used for printing, but only for the pro- 
duction of matrices ; consequently it always remains unim- 
paired, and thus perfect identity is maintained in the ap- 
pearance of the notes. 

The notes are printed at platen-machines possessing great 
advantages over the ordinary printing-machines, more partic- 
ularly in the distribution of the ink. Three machines are 
employed, two of which were manufactured by Messrs. Na- 
pier & Sons, and the other by Messrs. Hopkinson & Cope. 
A tell-tale, or register, is attached to each machine, which 
marks the number of impressions. These registers are set 
by a clerk before the printing commences, and are checked 
by him at the close of the day, when the printer must ac- 
count for (either in bank-notes or " spoils") the number of 
impressions registered by the dial. The notes are printed 
upon dry paper, a process which has been very greatly ac- 
celerated by the recent improvements introduced into the ink 
by Mr. Winstone, who manufactures for the bank. 

The number and dates of the bank-notes are added in an 
after-printing. This is effected at Messrs. Napier & Sons' 
cylinder machines : a very ingenious mechanism being at- 
tached to these machines which makes it impossible to com- 
mit any fraud by printing two notes of the same number. 
The apparatus consists of a series of brass discs, of which 
the rim is divided by channels into projecting compartments, 
each containing a figure. The numbers 1 to 9 having been 
printed in the course of the revolution of the first disc, the 
second disc then presents the figure 1, which, by combining 
with the of the first disc, the number 10 is formed. The 
second disc now remains stationary until, in the course of the 
revolution of the first disc, the numbers 1 to 19 have been 
printed, when it presents the figure 2, and does not again 
move until another revolution of the first disc completes the 
numbers 20 to 29. Thus the two discs proceed until 99 
notes have been numbered, when the third disc comes into 



126 Five Black Arts. 

operation, and with the first two, produces 100, consequently 
the first disc performs one hundred revolutions to ten of the 
second and one of the third. The notes may be numbered 
indefinitely by this process, without the possibility of error, 
the machine, meanwhile, being its own check. 

PRINTING-MACHINES. 

As long as the thirst of literature was confined to books 
and a few periodicals of limited sale and size, the ordinary 
printing-presses sufficed to supply the demand : nor was it 
discovered that any further speed was requisite, until the in- 
creased facility of conveyance, and the important events at 
the close of the last century, created a demand for news 
which the utmost exertions of the printers were unable to 
supply ; for the attempt to increase the speed by the compo- 
sition of two distinct forms of type would avail little, so long 
as the presses could turn out only 260 or 300 impressions 
each per hour. Accordingly for this branch of the art were 
the first machines projected. Many schemes were proposed 
for accelerating the movements of the press ; but the first at- 
tempts at any thing like the machine afterward introduced 
were made by William Nicholson, a gentleman connected with 
periodical literature, who took out a patent about 1790 for a 
printing-machine, of which the chief points were the follow- 
ing : The type being rubbed or scraped narrower toward 
the bottom, was to be fixed upon a cylinder, in order, as it 
were, to radiate from the center of it. This cylinder, with 
its type, was to revolve in gear with another cylinder cov- 
ered with soft leather (the impression-cylinder) ; and the 
type received its ink from another cylinder, to which inking 
apparatus was applied. The paper was impressed by passing 
between the type and impression- cylinders. Most of these 
plans were, when modified, adopted by after-constructors. 
This machine was never brought into use. 

Konig, an ingenious German, was the next who under- 
took to construct a machine; and having made considerable 
advance in his plans, obtained a contract with Mr. Walters, 
the proprietor of The London Times newspaper, for manu- 
facturing two for that journal. His machine was successful, 
and the number for the 28th November, 1814, was worked 



Pkinting — Machines. 127 

by it at the rate of 1100 impressions per hour. In this 
Nicholson's plan was so far altered, that the ordinary type 
was used and laid upon a flat surface, and the impression was 
given by the form passing under a cylinder of great size. 
Konig afterward invented a machine in which the sheet was 
printed on both sides before it left the machine ; but his ar- 
rangements for the equal distribution of the ink were so com- 
plicated and clumsy (consisting of not less than forty wheels) 
and the works of every part of the machine so intricate, 
that it never came into practical use. 

The first really useful machine was constructed by Messrs. 
Applegath and Cowper, being an extensive modification of 
that of Konig ; its principal improvement consisting in the 
application of two drums between the impression-cylinders, 
one of which reverses the sheet, and the other secures the 
register, by retaining it, after the impression of the first form, 
just so long that it may pass on to the second cylinder in ex- 
act time to be impressed thereby upon the second form; and 
of the distribution of the ink upon a plane surface, instead 
of by a number of rollers, by which Konig's complicated ma- 
chinery was got rid of. These machines, with numerous 
modifications, according to the plans of different makers, are 
now in general use. 

For newspapers, machines are generally made to work but 
one side at a time. It is manifest that a machine will work 
a much greater number (more than double) of one form than 
of two, and that the machinery will be lighter and less expen- 
sive, and of course require less motive power. One form, 
therefore, of a newspaper, containing advertisements and the 
less important matter, is worked at leisure ; and the second 
form, containing the leading article, important news, and 
other matter of consequence, is reserved until the last mo- 
ment, and is then thrown off with immense rapidity. For 
the usual description of book-work, machines (perfecting- 
machines) are constructed to Avork both forms at a time. In 
these, perfect register, and the exact and even distribu- 
tion of the ink, are of the greatest consequence, and such 
immense rapidity is not necessary. These machines, there- 
fore, differ very much in construction, though not in princi- 
ple, from those used for newspapers. 

The machine constructed by Messrs. Applegath and Cow- 



128 Five Black Arts. 

per in 1827 for The Times, two of which are still used for 
printing the supplements and advertising pages, has four im- 
pression-cylinders, which are so arranged that two are in 
contact with the type as the tahle passes to the right, and 
two as it passes to the left. It will print from 4000 to 5000 
impressions per hour. 

One of the principal impediments to great speed in this 
form of printing-machines is the necessity for a reciprocating 
motion in the type, table, and inking-table, — a great weight, 
the vis motus of which has to be neutralized, and then the 
vis inertice overcome, at each end of the traverse. This not 
only occasions a great waste of motive power, but also causes 
breakages and serious accidents. Mr. Applegath, finding 
these and other difficulties insuperable, abandoned the prin- 
ciple of placing the type on a plane table and the reciproca- 
ting motion, and constructed a machine in which the type is 
placed on the surface of a cylinder of large dimensions, 
which revolves on a vertical axis, with a continuous rota- 
tory motion. The Times has the credit of being first in 
adopting this great improvement in newspaper printing. 

The following is a careful description of this vast and com- 
plicated piece of machinery : 

In the center of the machine is a vertical cylinder or 
drum, 5 feet 4 inches in diameter. In contact with it, and 
revolving each on its own vertical axis, are eight impression- 
cylinders, 13 inches in diameter, each of which has a set of 
inking-rollers working in advance of it. The cylinders 
move with the same velocity as the surface of the drum. 
The columns of type are placed in a kind of iron galley, or 
turtle, curved to fit the surface of the drum. The outer sur- 
face of these galleys is not formed into a segment of a circle, 
but into facets, each the width of a column ; the wedge- 
shaped interval, which is left between the top and bottom of 
the types of every two adjoining columns, is compensated by 
column-rules, made thicker at the top than at the bottom in 
the same proportion. The middle column-rule is fixed. The 
columns are locked up in the galleys by means of screws, and 
the column-rules press the types together like key-stones in 
an arch. The fixed rule in the center prevents the types 
from rising. The galleys are then screwed on to the drum, the 
columns vertical. 



PRINTING. ] 



[ Plais 13. 




PRINTING. ] 



[ Plate 14. 




I 



Printing — Machines. 129 

be remembered, a series of facets, sides as it were of a polj- 
gon ; the surfaces of the impression-cylinders are made to 
conform to these facets, with sufficient accuracy, bj paper 
overlays. When stereotype plates are used, they are cast by 
Dellagana's process, in accurate segments of a circle, and the 
overlaying is unnecessary. The forms of types do not, of 
course, occupy the whole circumference of the central drum : 
a large part of the remainder is made the inking-table. The 
ink-box, which is also vertical, supplies ink to a ductor-roller, 
which works between two straight edges. As the drum re- 
volves, a portion of ink is taken from the ductor by two vi- 
brating rollers, and distributed on to the inking-table. The 
inking-table precedes the type-forms, and as it passes the 
inking rollers attached to each impression-cylinder come 
into contact with it, and receive ink from its surface. The 
type-forms, following next, come into contact with these ink- 
ing-rollers, and take from them the ink they have just re- 
ceived. The inking-table passes under the impression-cylin- 
ders without touching them ; but the type is brought into 
contact with the paper upon them, and the impression is given. 
Therefore, at every revolution of the drum, the type is inked 
eight times, comes into contact with eight impression-cylin- 
ders, and prints eight sheets of paper. 

It is most difficult to convey, by any verbal description, 
the singularly ingenious mechanism by which the sheets of 
paper are conveyed to and around the impression-cylinders. 
It must be remembered that the sheets are necessarily laid 
on the feeding-table liorizontally^ and that they pass around 
the cylinder vertically. The task will be rendered some- 
what simpler by reminding the reader that each impression- 
cylinder is a complete machine within itself, acting with the 
drum, but independent of the other cylinders ; and that, as 
each has its own system of inking-rollers, so each has its own 
system of feeding-drums and tapes. The white paper is laid on 
the feeding-table at the top ; each sheet is placed by the 
layer-on to the center of a feeding-drum. At the right 
moment, the sheet is advanced by finger-rollers until its 
forward edge is brought between two small rollers, each con- 
nected with a series of endless tapes, between which it is 
passed vertically downward. At the right moment its further 
progress is arrested by two vertical slips of wood called 
9 



130 Five Black Arts. 

" stoppers," which start forward and press the sheet against 
two fixed stoppers ; and, at the same moment, the two rollers 
and their tapes separate, and leave the sheet extended verti- 
cally between the two pairs of stoppers. Observe that, up 
to this moment, the travel of the sheet has been vertically 
downward, and that its plane surface is part of a radius 
from the axis of the central drum. The problem now to be 
solved is, to give it a horizontal movement toward the center, 
preserving its vertical position. The instant the sheet is 
arrested vertically between the stoppers, its top edge is 
caught by two pairs of small finger or sus})ending rollers ; at 
the same instant the stoppers separate, and the sheet is sus- 
pended for a moment between these rollers ; a slight inward 
motion is then given to the suspenders, sufficient to bring the 
inner edge of the sheet into the mouth of two sets of hori- 
zontal tapes, by which it is carried around the impression- 
cylinder and printed. As the sheet, after being printed, 
issues from the horizontal tapes, it is delivered to other sets, 
by which it is conveyed outward, under the laying-on board ; 
arrived at the proper point, it is again caught at the top edge 
between suspending rollers, the tapes separate, and it hangs 
for a moment ; when the taker-off", who sits below the layer- 
on, releases it by a slight jerk, and lays it on his board. 

No description can give any adequate idea of the scene 
presented by one of these machines in full work, — the maze 
of wheels and rollers, the intricate lines of swift-moving 
tapes, the flight of sheets, and the din of machinery. The 
central drum moves at the rate of six feet per second, or one 
revolution in three seconds ; the impression- cylinders make 
five revolutions in the same time. The layer-on delivers two 
sheets every five seconds, consequently, sixteen sheets are 
printed in that brief space. The diameter of an eight-feeder, 
including the galleries for the layers-on, is twenty-five feet. 
The Times employs two of these eight-cylinder machines, 
each of which averages 12,000 impressions per hour ; and 
one nine-cylinder, which prints 16,000. 

These vast machines, however, are only useful when the 
necessity of working a very large number with the utmost 
rapidity overrides all considerations of cost and space. An 
excellent machine, in which considerable speed is obtained 
with comparative economy of expense and room, the inven- 



Printing — Machines. 131 

tion of Messrs. Hoe of New York, has been lately used for 
newspapers and periodicals of long numbers. In principle, 
it does not diflfer from Applegath's vertical, inasmuch as the 
type is fixed upon a central cylinder or drum, which has a con- 
tinuous rotatory motion, in contact with impression-cylinders 
set around it. The chief diflference is, that the drum and 
impression-cylinders are not vertical, but horizontal. The 
machines are manufactured of different sizes, according to 
the number of impression-cylinders required. Those more 
generally made have six cylinders, some have eight, and The 
Times has recently constructed one with ten. This last 
machine is calculated to produce 20,000 impressions per 
hour. The following is a description of a six-cylinder ma- 
chine : 

A horizontal central cylinder is mounted on a shaft with 
appropriate bearings, and around it, arrayed at proper dis- 
tances, are six horizontal impression-cylinders. The mov- 
able types or stereo-casts are secured on a portion of the 
central cylinder, about a quarter of its circumference, and 
compensated by a balance-weight on the opposite side ; the 
remainder of the cylinder is used as a distributing-table for 
the ink. This portion of the cylinder is lower than the face 
of the type, in order that it may pass under the impression- 
cylinders without being touched by them. The ink is con- 
tained in an ink-box placed beneath the central cylinder, 
and supplies the ink to the ductor-roller, from which it is 
transferred by a vibrating distributing-roller to the distribu- 
ting-table. The ductor-roller receives a slow and continuous 
rotary motion, so that it always presents a uniform line of 
ink to the vibrating roller. The machine being put in mo- 
tion, the form of type on the central cylinder is brought into 
contact with each of the six impression-cylinders in succes- 
sion ; and six sheets of paper, which have been introduced, 
one to each impression-cyhnder, are printed in one revolu- 
tion of the central cylinder. For each impression-cylinder 
there are two inking-rollers, which roll over the distributing 
surface and take a supply of ink ; at the proper time they 
rise, pass over the type, and then fall on to the distributing 
surface. 

Each page is locked up upon a detached segment of the 
large cylinder called a " turtle," which constitutes the bed 



132 Five Black Akts. 

and chase. The column-rules, like those for the vertical 
machine, are wedge-shaped, and are held down to the turtle 
bj tongues projecting at intervals along their length, and 
sliding in rebated grooves cut crosswise in the face of the 
turtle, the space in the grooves between the column-rules 
being filled with sliding blocks of metal, accurately fitted, 
the outer surface level with the surface of the turtle, the 
ends next the column-rules being cut away underneath to 
receive a projection in the sides of the tongues. The head 
and cross rules are segments of a circle of the same curv- 
ature as the turtle. The types are secured by screws and 
wedges. 

Six persons, one to each impression-cylinder, are required 
to supply the paper, — three on each side of the machine. 
The paper is conveyed from the laying-on board to the im- 
pression-cylinders by gripers. The sheets when printed are 
carried by tapes to six self-acting fly-frames, which lay them 
regularly in piles. 

Another American, M. S. Beach, has improved upon 
Hoe's machine, by converting it into a perfecting-machine. 
His improvement consists in placing the second form upon 
the central type-drum, superseding the necessity for the 
balance-weight : the sheet, after being printed on one side, 
is immediately drawn back and printed on the other side 
from the second form, without checking or changing the 
uniform revolution of the cylinder ; and thus the work done 
by it is doubled. The diameter of the type-drum in this 
machine, which is calculated for eight impression-cylinders, 
13 only four feet ; the type has therefore to travel a less dis- 
tance in one revolution of the drum ; and the consequence 
is, that in traveling the same distance in this machine, and at 
the same speed, 22,000 double impressions would be produced 
in an hour. This account is taken from the New York Sun. 

A horizontal cylinder-machine, on the same system as 
Hoe's, made by Middleton, capable of printing 20,000 im- 
pressions per hour, is now used for printing The London Morn- 
ing Herald. The type is secured on the central cylinder, 2^ 
feet in diameter, in the same way as in The Times vertical 
machine ; the ink is supplied from a ductor below the type-cyl- 
inder, and distributed upon an inking-table attached to the 
type-cylinder, to which a slight lateral motion is communi- 



Printing — Machines. 133 

cated by two straps, one on each side of the machine. There 
are five impression-cylinders at equal distances around the 
central cylinder, to which the paper is supplied from ten 
feeders, on the same principle as in the other horizontal ma- 
chines, four on one end of the machine and six on the other ; 
the printed sheets are delivered on to five taking-oiF boards, 
one to each two feeders, and received by five lads. The 
machine is 26k feet long, 5 feet wide, and 17^ high. 

The machines of Mr. Napier, intended for book-work, are 
in good repute. They have the advantage of being easily 
worked by two men, thus rendering steam-power unnecessary. 
They stand in a very small compass, and do beautiful work. 
As far as regards motion and impression, they do not greatly 
vary from the cylinder machines already described ; but in 
the method of conveying the paper, obtaining register, and 
inking, they are altogether different. The paper is laid to a 
certain gauge, when, in the revolution of the cylinder, gripers 
are made to compress the edge of the paper upon it, very 
much in the manner in which the fore-finger closes on the 
thumb. It is by these means conveyed with it during one 
revolution, in the course of which it is printed on one side. 
At the commencement of the second revolution these gripers 
open at the precise moment, Avhen the gripers attached to the 
second cylinder close, and thus convey the sheet over the 
second form. Tapes pass under the second cylinder, between 
the blanket and the paper, and over a pulley upon a bar, by 
the mere friction of which the sheet is thrown out upon a 
board. These gripers are made to act with such perfect cer- 
tainty that the best possible register is obtained. The inking 
apparatus consists of a trough with a ductor and vibrating 
roller, which communicates the ink to composition-rollers, by 
the revolution of which in contact with each other the ink is 
perfectly distributed, and from these to the type. A cross 
motion is communicated to the distributing-roller by means 
of a worm in the elongated spindle. As but one impression 
is given during the traverse of the table in each direction, 
the cylinder which does not at the moment hold the paper 
would be in contact with the type, had not Mr. Napier added 
a beautiful adjustment, whereby the cylinders rise and fall 
alternately, so that the one not in use passes over the form 
intact. This machine will work from 1000 to 1200 perfect 



134 Five Black Arts. 

sheets per hour, and requires but two boys. Mr. Napier 
has constructed several other machines of great merit, one 
of which, for newspapers, will perfect 2000 sheets per hour 
by the labor of two men. 

Messrs. Hopkinson and Cope have also produced a double- 
cylinder perfecting griper machine adapted for book-work or 
newspapers. The peculiarity of this machine is, that it is 
supplied with a set-off sheet apparatus, by which a " set-off 
sheet" is fed in Avith each sheet to be printed, which it meets 
as the latter enters on the second cylinder, and, passing 
round with it, prevents the ink on the printed side of the 
paper setting off on the blanket of the cylinder, and being 
thence transferred to the following sheet. This apparatus 
can be easily dispensed with when ordinary work is being 
printed. They have also made a single cylinder griper ma- 
chine called a " Desideratum." It is supplied with a point- 
ing apparatus, which renders it available for book-work. 

Before the invention of cylinder machines, the desire to 
obtain increased speed led to many ingenious contrivances 
for accelerating the action and economising the expense of 
the ordinary printing-press ; all of which, however, either 
failed, or were superseded by the steam machine. There 
are now in general use, for book-work of a quality superior 
to that produced by the cylinder, several machine-presses 
which are in every respect satisfactory. They generally 
consist of two tables, on each of which a form is laid ; these 
pass alternately under a self-acting platen : while one form 
is receiving the impression, the other is delivering its printed 
sheet to the taker-off, and receiving its white sheet from the 
layer-on. This double operation is effected at the same time, 
by the frisket being attached to the tympan at the bottom 
(not at the top as in the common press). "When the tympan 
opens, it falls back inward ; the white paper'is laid on the 
frisket, the tympan closes upon it, it is printed ; but when 
the tympan opens, the printed sheet is made to rise with it, 
and is taken off while the layer-on is placing another sheet 
on the frisket. The ink is conveyed to the type by a similar 
apparatus to that used in cylinder machines. These machine- 
presses do excellent work at the rate of 600 or 700 impres- 
sions per hour, and are made by the same firms as supply 
cylinder-machines. 



Printing — Machines. 135 

The " Scandinavian " machine-press differs from all others 
in respect that the form of type is stationary, and that the 
tympan and inking-roller are passed between the form and 
the platen. As the power required to set this press in mo- 
tion is much less than that required where the form and 
table travel, manual labor is sufficient ; but only one form 
can be worked at a time. 

These are by no means all the machines that have been 
devised or brought into use. They are, however, all that it 
is necessary to mention, as the same principle is common to 
all. Every maker is at liberty to manufacture almost all of 
them, with such modifications as his own talents may suggest, 
the patents, where any were taken out, having, with few 
exceptions, expired. 



POTTERY AND PORCELAIN. 



BY CHARLES TOMLINSON. 



POTTERY AND PORCELAIN. 



The word pottery is said to be derived from the low Latin 
terra potus, a pot, which is from tlie classical Latin potus, 
drink;* but the etymology of porcelain is more uncertain. 
Some writers derive it from porcellana, the Portuguese for a 
drinking-cup ; others from a similar word in Italian, which is 
applied to a univalve shell of the genus Cyprceidce, or cow- 
ries, having a high arched back resembling that of a hog 
(^poreo, Ital.), and a white, smooth, vitreous glossiness of 
surface similar to that of fine porcelain. The essential in- 
gredients of every article in pottery and porcelain are silica 
and alumina. The pure chemical compound, silicate of al- 
umina, must, however, be regarded as an ideal type, unat- 
tainable even in the finest porcelain ; while in the coarser va- 
rieties, and in pottery, impurities, such as iron, lime, potash, 
etc., give character to the resulting wares^ Even if it were 
possible to obtain pure silica and alumina in sufficient quanti- 
ties for manufacturing purposes, it would still be necessary to 
add certain substances to increase somewhat the fusibility of 
these refractory materials. Pottery is also distinguished by 
being opaque, while porcelain is translucent^ Wares of 
either kind are further distinguished by the terms soft and 
hard, or, as the French term them, tendre and dur — distinc- 
tions which relate as well to the composition of the ware as 
tu the temperature at which it is made solid. Common bricks 
and earthenware vessels, pipkins, pans, etc., are soft; while 
fire-brick and crockery, such as queen's-ware, stone-ware, 
etc., are hard. Soft pottery, consisting of silica, alumina, 
and lime, admits of being scratched with a knife or file, and 
is usually fusible at the heat required merely for baking por- 

*Pot is said by Tooke to be the past tense of the verb to jni—i. e., to ex- 
cavate or sink into a hollow. 



140 Five Black Arts. 

celain. Stone-ware is composed of silica, alumina, and ba- 
ryta, and may be regarded as a coarse kind of porcelain. 
Hard porcelain contains more of alumina and less of silica 
than the soft ; it is baked at a stronger heat, and is more 
dense. Soft porcelain contains more silica than the hard, and 
is also combined with alkaline fluxes, so that its softness is 
manifested in being easily scratched and less able to resist a 
strong heat. 

HISTORICAL SKETCH. 

Articles of fictile ware are at once the most fragile and the 
most enduring of human monuments. A piece of common 
pottery, liable to be shivered to pieces by a slight blow, is 
more enduring than epitaphs in brass and efiigies in bronze. 
These yield to the varying action of the weather ; stone 
crumbles away, ink fades, and paper decays ; but the earthen 
vase, deposited in some quiet but forgotten receptacle, sur- 
vives the changes of time, and even when broken at the mo- 
ment of its discovery by the pick of the laborer, aifords in- 
struction in its fragments. In their power of traversing 
accumulated ages, and affording glimpses of ancient times 
and people, fictile articles have been compared to the fossils 
of animals and plants, which reveal to the educated eye the 
former conditions of our globe. 

Clay is so generally diffused, and its plastic nature is so 
obvious, that the art of working it cannot be considered as 
above the intelligence of a savage ; hence the production of 
articles in clay may be said to belong to every people and to 
all time. The first drinking-vessels would be sun-baked, and 
consequently very destructible ; so that few articles would 
survive a single winter. A considerable period must have 
elapsed before the method of giving permanence to these ar- 
ticles by the action of fire was discovered ; but it is chiefly 
to this discovery that we owe the preservation of so many 
ancient relics of the fictile art. The sun-dried bricks of 
Egypt, Assyria, and Babylonia, have, however, been pre- 
served to this day, and " not only afford testimony to the 
truth of Scripture by their composition of straw and clay, 
but also by the hieroglyphs impressed upon them, transmit the 
names of a series of kings, and testify the existence of edi- 
fices, all knowledge of which, except for these relics, would 



Pottery and Porcelain — History. 141 

have utterly perished. Those of Assyria and Babylon, in 
addition to the same information, have, by their cuneiform in- 
scriptions, which mention the locality of the edifices for which 
they were made, afforded the means of tracing the sites of 
ancient Mesopotamia and Assyria with an accuracy unattain- 
able by any other means. When the brick was ornamented, 
as in Assyria, with glazed representations, this apparently 
insignificant but imperishable object has confirmed the de- 
scriptions of the walls of Babylon, which critical skepticism 
had denounced as fabulous. The Roman bricks have also 
borne their testimony to history. A large number of them 
present a series of the names of consuls of imperial Rome ; 
while others show that the proud nobility of the Eternal City 
partly derived their revenues from the kilns of their Cam- 
panian and Sabine farms." * 

The excellent authority just quoted refers to the next step 
in the progress of manufacture, namely, that of modehng in 
clay the forms of the physical world, the origin of the plastic 
art, " to which the symbolical pantheism of the old world 
gave an extension almost universal." When stone and metal 
came to be used as materials for sculpture, clay was still em- 
ployed for the elaboration of the model, and also for the mul- 
tiplication of copies for popular use of celebrated pieces of 
sculpture. The invention of the mould caused the terra cot- 
tas of antiquity to be as widely diffused as the plaster casts 
of modern times. Among the Assyrians and Babylonians 
clay was used as a material for writing on. The traveler 
Layard discovered in the palace of Sennacherib a whole li- 
brary of clay books, consisting of histories, deeds, almanacs, 
spelling-books, vocabularies, inventories, horoscopes, receipts, 
letters, etc. About 2000 of these clay books of the Assyr- 
ians have been discovered ; they are in the form of tablets, 
cylinders, and hexagonal prisms of terra cotta. 

Before the invention of the potter's wheel, clay vessels 
could have had but little symmetry of shape. The necessity 
for some such contrivance must have been early felt, and it 
was probably invented by several nations. It is represented 
on the Egyptian sculptures ; it is mentioned in Holy Scrip- 
ture ; and was in use at an early period in Assyria. Mr. 

*Eisiory of Ancient Pottery, by Samuel Birch, F.S.A., London, 1858. 



142 Five Black Arts. 

Birch states, that " the very oldest vases of Greece, somes of 
which are supposed to have been made in the heroic ages, 
bear marks of having been turned upon the wheel," The 
art of firing the ware is also of the highest antiquity. Re- 
mains of baked earthenware are common in Egypt in the 
tombs of the first dynasties, and the oldest bricks and tablets 
of Assyria and Babylon bear evidence of having passed 
through the fire. The oldest remains of Hellenic pottery owe 
their preservation to their having been fired. As the clay 
by this process is rendered porous and incapable of holding 
liquids, the necessity for some kind of glaze must have been 
early felt. Opaque glasses or enamels have been found in 
Egypt as old as the fourth dynasty, and both the Egyptians 
and the Assyrians seem to have preferred an opaque enamel 
to a transparent glaze, somewhat after the fashion of the mod- 
ern faience. Numerous fragments testify to the use of glaz- 
ing amongst the ancient Greeks and Romans. With respect 
to form, the Greek vases, by their beauty and simplicity, have 
become models for various kinds of earthenware ; while the 
application of painting to vases has transmitted to us much in- 
formation respecting the mythology, manners, customs and 
literature of ancient Greece. Even the Roman lamps and 
red ware illustrate in their ornaments many customs, man- 
ners, and historical events. As the pottery of different 
modern nations has its characteristic features, so the ancient 
pottery has its distinctions of time and place. It is impossi- 
ble not to distinguish between the rude and simple urns fash- 
ioned by the early inhabitants of Great Britain and the more 
carefully finished specimens of the Roman conquerors of these 
islands. Then, again, the simple unglazed earthenware of 
Greece contrasts with the more elaborate Etruscan forms, the 
finest of which, however, are probably by Greek artists. Then, 
again, the red and black potteries of India contrast with the 
black and white potteries of North America, the latter being 
interspersed with fragments of bivalve shells. On the dis- 
covery of the extraordinary ruins in Central America, speci- 
mens of pottery were found which showed considerable ad- 
vance in the art compared with the date assigned to these 
ruins, namely, 1000 B.C. The specimens had been formed 
without the assistance of the potter's wheel ; but they are 
well baked, the ornaments are in different colors, and they 



Pottery and Porcelain — History. 143 

are coated with a fine vitreous glaze, such as was unknown in 
Europe until within about ten centuries. The religious em- 
ployment of earthen vessels in early times, and the custom of 
placing them in tombs as receptacles for medals, trophies, in- 
signia, money, rings, and votive offerings, has greatly assisted 
the studies of archaeologists in modern times, and we can do 
no more in this brief sketch than refer to their useful labors. 

Porcelain is of modern introduction into Europe, but it was 
known in China more than a century before the Christian era. 
The Chinese appear to have improved their art during four 
or five centuries, and then, supposing themselves to have at- 
tained perfection, they allowed the art to remain stationary. 
So completely was the manufacture identified with that na- 
tion, that on the introduction of porcelain into Europe by the 
Portuguese in 1518, it received the name of china, which it 
still partially retains. The Chinese continued to supply us with 
porcelain during many years. It was supposed that the fine 
clay or kaolin used in its production was peculiar to China, 
and that it was consequently hopeless to attempt to manufac- 
ture porcelain in Europe. The porcelain of Japan is only a 
variety of the Chinese. 

While the Chinese were improving their manufacture, the 
art of making decorative pottery became lost in Europe amid 
the darkness which followed the overthrow of the Western 
Empire. The first symptoms of revival were due to the Mo- 
hammedan invaders of Spain, whose tiles of enameled earth- 
enware ar« to be seen in the Moorish buildings of Seville, 
Toledo, Granada, and the Alhambra. They are of a pale 
clay, " the surface of which is coated over with a white opaque 
enamel, upon which the elaborate designs are executed in 
colors.* The Spaniards acquired from the Moors the art of 
manufacturing enameled tiles, or azulejos as they are called, 
and they still continue to be made in Valencia. The Moors 
also adorned their pottery with Arabic inscriptions, and with 
arabesque patterns resembling a lace vail in richness. The 
vase known as that of the Alhambra is of earthenware ; the 
ground is white, the ornaments are either blue of two shades, 
or of gold or copper luster.f The Moors continued to manu- 

*A History of Pottery and Porcelain, mediceval and modern, by Joseph Marryat, 
2d edition, London, 1857. 

t This vase is figured in Owen Jones's work on the Alhambra. 



144 Five Black Arts. 

facturo ornamental pottery until tlie time of their final expul- 
sion from Spain at the beginning of the seventeenth century. 
This Hispano- Arabic pottery, as it is called, is the prototype 
of the Italian majolica, and was long confounded with it. 
Specimens of it are to be seen in several celebrated collec 
tions. The majolica, or enameled ware of Italy, probably 
dates from the twelfth century. It is related that a pirate 
king of Majorca, about 1115, was besieged in his stronghold 
by an armament from Pisa, and being vanquished, the expe- 
dition returned to Italy laden with spoil, among which, it is 
supposed, were a number of plates of painted Moorish pot- 
tery, such specimens being found incrusted in the walls of 
the most ancient churches of Pisa. They appear to have 
been regarded as religious trophies. No attempt, however, 
was made to imitate them until the fourteenth century, when 
specimens of majolica, so called from the island of Majorca, 
were produced ; they resemble the Moorish examples in having 
arabesque patterns in yellow and green, upon a blue ground. 
About the year 1451 the manufacture had become celebrated 
at Pesaro, the birthplace of Luca della Robbia, who is re- 
garded by persons who set aside the foregoing origin of ma- 
jolica as the inventor of this ware. He appears to have 
earned distinction as a sculptor when he took to working in 
terra cotta, and gave permanence to his productions by the 
invention of a white enamel. His Madonnas, Scripture sub- 
jects, figures and architectural pieces are still prized by collec- 
tors. Mr. Marryat refers to them as " by far the finest works 
of art ever executed in pottery." He is also " the founder of 
a school which produced works not much inferior to his own." 
Existing specimens are of a dazzling whiteness, and the glaze, 
after so great a lapse of time, continues to be quite perfect. 
The manufacture of majolica flourished during two centuries 
under the patronage of the House of Urbino. The first duke, 
Frederick of Montefeltro (1444), took a lively interest in the 
manufacture ; his son established a manufacture at Pesaro, 
and the most eminent artists were employed in furnishing de- 
signs, a system of patronage which was maintained by suc- 
ceeding dukes. There is a tradition that Raffaelle was em- 
ployed in furnishing designs; whence majolica sometimes 
passes by the name of Raffaelle ware. But as the finest 
specimens do not date earlier than 1540, or twenty years 



Pottery and Porcelain — History. 145 

after the death of that great artist, he was probahly not di- 
rectly concerned in the manufacture. But it is admitted that 
his scholars used his drawings in composing designs for the 
finest specimens. In the middle of the fifteenth and during 
part of the sixteenth century, many towns of Italy had be- 
come renowned for their majolica ware, of which the coarser 
specimens were named mezza-majolica, and the finer, how- 
ever inappropriately, porcelana. The manufacture had at- 
tained its greatest celebrity between 1540 and 1560. After 
the last-named date the art began to decline, and the intro- 
duction of porcelain, properly so called, helped to complete 
its downfall. The caprices of fashion cannot be alone charged 
with the destruction of this beautiful art, since, so far as util- 
ity is concerned, a hard paste covered with a vitreous glaze, 
as in porcelain, must be very superior to a soft paste coated 
with a metallic glaze, as in the case of majolica. The best 
examples of mezza-majolica are distinguished by the beauty 
of their color, and the perfection of their enamel glaze ; the 
latter imparting to the yellow and white tints the metallic 
luster of gold and silver. There is also a remarkable mother- 
of-pearl luster, together with an iridescent ruby, peculiar to 
Pesaro and Gubbio. The most general colors used in the 
painting were blue and yellow, with their mixtures. The 
drawing is not so good as the coloring, until the so-called por- 
celana raised the art to its zenith. After the year 1560 the 
designs became more fanciful and grotesque, and the colors 
inferior. It must not, however, be supposed that the arti- 
cles manufactured were ornamental only. During the whole 
reign of majolica ware, all kinds of common articles were 
produced, such as pilgrim's bottles, with holes in the bottom 
rim for the strap or cord by which the vessel was carried ; 
various forms of vases, adorned with paintings, with handles 
in the form of serpents, and rims surmounted by grotesque 
figures of animals and fishes ; fruit dishes, with embossed pat- 
terns in high relief ; small plates for ices and sweetmeats; 
vases, for holding different kinds of wine, which could be 
poured out from one spout ; small flasks, in the shape of lemons 
and apples ; cups covered with tendrils or quaint devices ; 
small figures of saints ; jocose figures ; birds colored after 
nature ; painted tiles for walls and floors, etc. Some of the 
most interesting specimens of majolica are known as amato- 
10 



146 Five Black Arts. 

rii, and consist of vessels, plates, or deep saucers, containing 
the portrait and name of a lady ; these were filled with fruits 
or sweetmeats, and presented as pledges of affection. The 
portraits not only perpetuate the female beauty of a former 
age, but also the costume by which it was sought to make 
that beauty more attractive. Some of the amatorii repre- 
sent hands united, hearts a-flame, or pierced with darts, after 
the fashion of the modern valentine. The painters who exe- 
cuted the designs were usually copyists, the design itself 
being furnished by an eminent artist. In some cases, how- 
ever, the painters themselves were the artists, and are known 
by certain monograms and marks. Occasionally the painters 
bought the pieces ready prepared for painting, executed them 
at home, and took them to the kiln to be fired. In such 
cases, the piece is often marked with the name of the potter, 
as well as that of the artist. The custom of attaching sig- 
natures to the pieces is peculiar to some manufactories : those 
with names and monograms for the most part belong to Gub- 
bio and Albino. Different towns had their distinguishing 
marks, and it was common to mark in blue characters on the 
back of the dish the subject of the design ; but when a com- 
plete service was painted, only the principal piece was 
marked : it was also customary to introduce the arms of the 
family for whom the service was prepared. 

Majolica was introduced into Germany in 1507 by Hirsch- 
vogel of Nuremberg, but the manufacture does not appear to 
have survived him. It prospered better in France, where, 
under the name of faience* it flourished under the patronage 
of Catherine de Medici and her kinsman Louis Gonzaga. 
The latter established Italian artists in his dukedom of Nev- 
ers, and they were successful in producing enameled pottery 
from native materials. Gradually as native artists succeeded 
the Italian ones, the classical designs of the latter were de- 
graded, and the enameled ware of Italy was represented only 
by the common faience of France. In the eighteenth cen- 
tury Nevers recovered her reputation, and became celebrated 
for the brilliancy of a dark blue enamel with white patterns 
upon common ware. A variety of enameled pottery was also 

* This term is supposed to be derived from the small town, now a village, 
of Faience, in the department of Var, which, as early as the sixth century, 
appears to have been celebrated for glazed pottery. 



Pottery and Porcelain — History. 147 

produced at Rouen : this attracted some notice ; but the kind 
of ware which maj be said to be peculiar to France is that 
known as PaHssj ware. There is a good deal of romance 
mixed up with the life of the inventor of this ware. Ber- 
nard Palissj and his adventures, real or imaginary, have as- 
sisted in multiplying the number of those dangerous books 
which ascribe imaginary events to real characters. Palissy 
was born at the commencement of the sixteenth century, of 
poor parents ; but nature had implanted within him a love of 
the beautiful, which became his teacher. He managed to ac- 
quire a knowledge of reading, writing, and land-surveying, 
by which last-named art he earned his livelihood. In the in- 
tervals of employment he was much given to the study of the 
Italian masters, and he was delighted to obtain work in paint- 
ing images and designs on glass. This enabled him to gratify 
his taste for travel, and for studying natural objects, lie be- 
came master of the chemistry and mineralogy of his day, such 
as it was. In 1539 he settled at Saintes as an artist, where 
he married. His attention was directed to pottery by being 
shown a beautiful enameled cup, and on proceeding to inquire 
into its mode of manufacture, he found that there were secrets 
connected with it, and especially with the composition of the 
enamel. He at once undertook a course of experiments on 
the subject, but without success. The desire to master the 
subject had, however, taken such possession of him, that du- 
ring several years he devoted nearly all his time and means 
to this pursuit, in spite of the claims of his wife and family 
and the remonstrances of his friends. He borrowed money 
to enable him to construct a new furnace ; and when too poor 
to buy fuel, he used his furniture instead. When unable to 
pay his assistant's wages, he gave him the coat from off his 
back. Thus becoming every year more wretched than the 
preceding, the folly of sixteen years (as it would have been 
called had he failed) ended in a triumph. His figuUnes or 
rustic pottery became the fashion of the day, and his beauti- 
ful patterns were every where admired. The general style 
of his ware is marked by quaintness and singularity ; his fig- 
ures are usually chaste in form : the ornaments and subjects 
of an historical, mythological, and allegorical character are 
in relief, and colored. His natural objects, with the excep- 
tion of certain leaves, were all moulded from nature. His 



148 Five Black Arts. 

sheila are those of the tertiarj formation of the Paris basin ; 
his fish are those of the Seine ; the reptiles and plants are 
from the neighborhood of Paris ; and he made use of no for- 
eign natural production. The colors are usually bright, and 
mostly confined to yellows, blues, and grays ; sometimes ex- 
tending to green, violet, and brown. Mr. Marryat says that 
Palissy never succeeded in attaining the purity of the white 
enamel of Luca della Robbia, or even that of the faience of 
Nevers. The pieces rustiques of this artist, intended to 
adorn the large sideboards of the dining-rooms of the period, 
are loaded with objects in relief. A favorite subject with 
him was a flat kind of basin or dish, representing the bottom 
of the sea, covered with fishes, shells, sea-weeds, pebbles, 
snakes, etc. We have also from the hand of this artist, ewers 
and vases with grotesque ornaments, boars' heads, curiously- 
formed salt-cellars, figures of saints, wall and floor tiles, etc. 
Mr. Baring Wall speaks of Palissy as " a great master of the 
power and effect of neutral tints." * 

France is also celebrated for a fine ware known a.s faience 
fine and gres cerame. Some of the earliest specimens are 
known under the name of renaissance, or fine faience of 
Henri II. There are only thirty-seven pieces of this manu- 
facture extant ; and as twenty-seven of them have been 
traced to Touraine and La Vendee, it has been conjectured 
that the manufactory was at Thouars in Touraine. The ma- 
terial is a fine white pipe-clay, the texture of which is seen 
through the thin transparent yellow varnish. The patterns 
are engraved on the paste, and the hollows filled up with col- 
ored pastes, so as to resemble fine inlaying, or chiseled silver 
■works in niello; whence this ware has also been termed 
faience a niello. There are also beautifully-modeled raised 
ornaments : the articles are for the most part small and light, 
consisting of cups, ewers, and a vase with a spout for pouring, 
called a hiberon. A single candlestick of this ware was sold 
a few years ago for 220Z. 

Germany had its enameled wares as early as the thirteenth 
century, the secret of success being of course the discovery 
of a fine glaze. Ratisbon, Landschut, and Nuremberg thus 
became formidable rivals of the Arabs and the Italians. The 

* Lecture delivered before the Literary and Scientific Societj of Salis- 
bury, January, 1853. Printed for private circulation. 



Pottery and Porcelain — History. 149 

distinctive characters of this ware are the fine green glaze, 
the complex form, the number and variety of ornaments, 
lightness, and good workmanship. Nuremberg also became 
famous for its large enameled tiles used for covering stoves. 

Holland, from its exclusive trade with Japan, was induced to 
imitate the Japanese porcelain. The chief seat of the man- 
ufacture was Delft ; and the ware was known and esteemed 
in the sixteenth century by its fantastic design, good color, and 
beautiful enamel — the latter being smooth and even, and 
slightly tinged with blue. The Japanese origin was seen in 
the monstrous animals of the chimera class, the three-ringed 
bottle, the tall shapeless beaker, and the large circular dish, 
which were long regarded in Europe as favorite ornaments ; 
while the common articles were so generally distributed as to 
obtain for Delft, the title of the " parent of pottery." The 
fine English wares introduced by Wedgwood and others were 
the means of injurng the trade of Delft. 

In England, the first manufactory of fine earthenware is 
said to have been erected in the reign of Elizabeth at Strat- 
ford-le-Bow. The well-known Shakspeare jug is cited as a 
good specimen of Elizabethan pottery. It is of cream-colored 
earthenware, about 9 inches in height and 16 in circumfer- 
ence in the largest part. Its shape resembles that of a mod- 
ern coffee-pot. It is divided lengthwise into eight compart- 
ments, each containing a mythological subject in high relief 
and of considerable merit. The silver top is a modern ad- 
dition. The Elizabethan pottery nearly approaches in hard- 
ness that of fine stone-ware ; it is of a dingy white, and its 
ornaments in relief consist mostly of quaint figures and foli- 
age. In the reign of Elizabeth the Staffordshire potteries 
came into notice, of which some of the earliest specimens 
consist of butter-pots of native brick earth, glazed with pow- 
dered lead-ore, which was dusted on while the ware was in a 
green state ; the tig^ or drinking-cup, with three handles ; 
and the parting-cup, with two handles. In 1684 a manu- 
factory of earthenware was established at Fulbam, some of 
the products of which, under the name of Fulham-ware, are 
still valued by collectors. They consist of white gorges or 
pitchers, marbled porcelain vessels, statues, and figures. The 
proprietor, Mr. John D wight, attempted to produce the trans- 
parent porcelain of China, but his success was not such as to 



150 Five Black Akts. 

turn him from the more profitable manufacture of earthen- 
ware. About the time of the Revolution, ale-jugs of native 
marl, ornamented with figures in white pipe-claj, were intro- 
duced. During the reigns of Anne and George 1. an im- 
proved ware was made of sand and pipe-clay colored with 
oxide of copper and manganese, forming the well-known 
agate-ware and tortoiseshell-ware, conferring on the pottery 
the character of a hard paste, which was subsequently so 
much improved by Wedgwood, and introduced under the 
name of Queen'' s-w are. 

The proceedings of Wedgwood form an epoch in the his- 
tory of the art. Josiah Wedgwood was the son of a potter 
at Burslem in Stafibrdshire. He was born about the year 
1780, and can scarcely be said to have received any formal 
education. At the age of eleven he entered his brother's 
pottery as a thrower ; but he had not been long so engaged 
before he was attacked by small-pox, which left him with a 
lame leg, and rendered amputation necessary. Ilis first at- 
tempts to settle in life were not fortunate ; he became part- 
ner for a short time in 1752 with a man named Harrison, at 
Stoke, where he is said to have first felt a strong desire to 
manufacture ornamental pottery. His next partner, was 
named Wheildon, and his employment consisted in manufac- 
turing knife-handles in imitation of agate and tortoise-shell, 
melon table-plates, green pickle-leaves, etc. ; but he could not 
induce his partner to embark largely in the production of 
ornamental wares, nor was there much encouragement to do 
so. The upper classes of Great Britain obtained their porce- / 
lain from China ; the great bulk of the earthenware in do- 
mestic use was supplied by France, Germany, and Holland ; 1 
and even the trade in tobacco-pipes, in which England had 
attained some success, was becoming monopolized by the 
Dutch. To compete with these formidable rivals required 
the courage and persistence of genius ; and Wedgwood was 
not slow in bringing them to bear upon the native materials 
which surrounded him. Accordingly, in 1759 he established 
a small factory on his own account at Burslem. Here he 
must have been successful, for he soon undertook a second 
manufactory, where he produced a white stone-ware, and 
afterward a third, where he manufactured his celebrated 
cream-colored ware. Some specimens of the latter having 



Pottery and Porcelain — History. 151 

been shown to Queen Charlotte, her Majesty was so pleased 
■with them that she appointed Wedgwood the royal potter, and 
gave permission for calling the ware Queen's-ware. Wedg- 
wood had now no longer reason to complain of want of taste 
or of prtronage on the part of the public, and nobly did he 
use his best exertions to encourage the one and respond wor- 
thily to the other. He studied the chemistry of his day, and 
courted the society of scientific men, with a view to improve 
the composition, glaze, and color of his wares. He invited 
good artists to furnish him with designs, among whom was 
the celebrated Flaxman. Among Wedgwood's inventions 
may be mentioned a terra cotta, resembling porphyry ; ba- 
salts, or black ware, which would strike sparks like a flint ; 
white porcelain biscuit, with properties similar to basalt ; 
bamboo, ov cane-colored biscuit ; jasper, a white biscuit, of 
exquisite delicacy and beauty, well adapted for cameos, por- 
traits, etc. ; also blue jasper and greeyi jasper, and di porcelain 
biscuit little inferior to agate in hardness, and used for pes- 
tles and mortars in the laboratories of chemists. He also 
succeeded in imparting to hard pottery the vivid colors and 
brilliant glaze of porcelain. About the year 1762 Wedg- 
wood opened a warehouse in London, and intrusted it to the 
care of Mr. Bentley, a gentleman of recognized taste, who 
succeeded in attracting attention to the rising Staifordshire 
works, and also in obtaining the loan of vases, cameos, ori- 
ental porcelain, etc., which at that time were difficult to 
procure, especially for the purposes of the manufacturer ; 
but such was the sympathy of persons of taste with Wedg- 
wood's pursuits, that they freely lent their fictile treasures 
either to be copied or to suggest new designs. Even the 
Barbarini vase, which was purchased by the Duchess of Port- 
land for 1800 guineas, was lent to Wedgwood, who, after ex- 
ecuting fifty copies, destroyed the mould. Wedgwood's wares 
now became so deservedly popular that the extension of his 
works in Staffordshire led to the formation of a new village 
near Newcastle-under-Lyne, which was named " Etruria," 
from the resemblance which the clay dug there had to the 
ancient Etrurian earth, and also probably to mark the success 
with which Wedgwood had imitated the ancient Etruscan 
ware. This village long continued to be a center of attrac- 
tion for travelers from all parts of Europe, and we may still 



152 Five Black Arts. 

trace that celebrity In many noted collections of the ceramic 
art, Wedgwood's finest productions taking rank with the 
choicest specimens of Dresden and Sevres. Wedgwood died 
at his mansion in Etruria in 1795. 

The stone-ware which Wedgwood so greatly improved had 
long existed under various forms in different potteries of the 
world. In some cases it was common, and in others fine — 
the difference consisting in the composition of the paste. The 
Chinese were acquainted with this ware, and were accustomed 
to use it as the basis for a surface of porcelain paste. The 
stone pottery of the Rhine of the sixteenth century is esteemed 
by collectors for its quaintness of form, richness of ornament, 
and the color of its enamel. Gres Flamand, or Flemish 
stone-ware, of the period between 1540 and 1620 is remark- 
able for its beautiful blue color, quaint forms, and rich orna- 
ments. France also appears to have manufactured stone- 
ware before the sixteenth century. In England, Dutch and 
German workmen were engaged in the manufacture at an 
early period. In 1690 the mode of glazing by means of com- 
mon salt enabled the stone-ware manufacturers to compete 
successfully with delft and soft paste fabrics. Toward the 
end of the seventeenth century a very fine unglazed stone- 
ware, with raised ornaments, known as red Japan ware, was 
made in England, after the failure of many previous attempts. 
It appears that two brothers named Elers, from Nuremberg, 
discovered at Bradwell, about two miles from Burslem, a bed 
of fine red clay, which they worked at a small factory erected 
on the bed itself. They endeavored to conceal their discov- 
ery, as well as their mode of working, for which purpose they 
employed the most ignorant assistants that they could meet 
with ; but no sooner did their ware attract attention than a 
potter named Astbury, feigning to be an idiot, entered the 
service of the two brothers, and having learnt all their secrets, 
established a factory for himself; the processes soon became 
known, and others followed the example. In 1720 the two 
brothers closed their establishment, and entered the porcelain 
manufactory at Chelsea. Mr. Marryat characterizes their 
ware as being fine in material and sharp in execution, the or- 
naments being formed in copper moulds. 

Regarding stone-ware as a connecting-link between earth- 
enware and porcelain, we come now to the history of the 



Pottery and Porcelain — History. 153 

latter article. China, Japan, and Persia are the earliest na- 
tions which produced this beautiful material. Bottles of 
Chinese manufacture have been found in the tombs of Thebes ; 
and from an inscription on one of them, the date of the man- 
ufacture would appear to be between 1575 B.C. and 1289 B.C. 
The workmanship, however, is inferior. Porcelain seems to 
have been common in the Chinese empire in the year 163 B.C., 
and to have attained its greatest perfection in the jear 1000 
A.D. The porcelain tower near Nankin was erected in 1277. 
Marco Polo describes the manufacture in China during the 
thirteenth century. Specimens of the ware had gradually 
found their way to Europe, but were not generally known 
until the Cape of Good Hope had been doubled by the Portu- 
guese. The latter were so struck with the resemblance be- 
tween the texture of this fine ware and that of cowrie-shells 
or " porcellana," as they were called, that they imagined 
that the ware might be made of such shells, or of a compo- 
sition resembling them, and named it accordingly. They im- 
ported numerous and splendid collections of the ware into 
Europe, where it was also named from the country which pro- 
duced it ; and, from its ringing sound, " China metal." It 
was also called " China earth." On the expulsion of the 
Portuguese, the Dutch succeeded in establishing a trafiic with 
India and Japan ; and Europe was for a long time supplied 
with porcelain through Holland. The English shared in the 
trade somewhat later, through the medium of the East India 
Company ; but the taste for collecting china had become very 
general, and about the middle of the seventeenth century 
had amounted to a passion. The writers of the day fre- 
quently refer to it, especially in Queen Anne's reign. The 
French, who had established missions in China, succeeded in 
obtaining, from time to time, information respecting the man- 
ufacture. Fokien was represented as the seat of manufac- 
ture of the pure white porcelain of China, some of which 
consists of small cups and similar articles, with inscriptions, 
devices, etc., under the glaze, so that they can only be seen 
by holding the article up to the light. Nankin produced the 
blue and white porcelain, as also the pale buff on the necks 
of bottles and backs of plates. King-te-tching was named 
as the origin of the old sea-green and crackle porcelain. To 
the former the term celadon has been applied ; but the French 



154 Five Black Arts. 

extend the term to porcelain of any tint in which the colors are 
mixed with the glaze, and burnt in at the first firing. In some 
cases two or more colors are blended so as to give the appear- 
ance of shot-silk ; a variety, known as marbled, belongs to 
this class, and resembles marble in its coloring and veining. 
Crackle china, in which an immense number of cracks occur 
on the surface in small regular figures, is due to the unequal 
expansion of the glaze on the paste. The crackled " tsoui-khi" 
are produced by combining steatite with the glaze ; and this 
when fired, splits into a net-work over the surface. A simi- 
lar eifect can be produced by plunging the heated porcelain 
into cold water ; the cracks are then filled in with a thick 
ink or red-ocher. The ancient crackle is so much esteemed 
in Japan that as much as 300Z. has been paid for a single 
specimen. The Chinese call this ware snake-porcelain ; and 
the French apply to it the term porcelai7ie iruitee. But the 
perfection of the ceramic art among the Chinese is exhibited 
in their egg-shell porcelain, which is thin and transparent, 
and resembles an egg-shell in appearance. This ware is col- 
ored citron-yellow for the exclusive use of the emperor, and 
ruby for the use of the imperial family. The porcelain in 
common use in China is brown, the inside being white, and 
white medallions outside. There is also an inferior and mod- 
ern porcelain, manufactured at Canton, and known as Indian 
china. But all the specimens of Chinese porcelain, however 
beautiful may be the material and delicate the texture, how- 
ever brilliant the color and pure the glaze, the form and the 
design are hideous. It has been remarked that the vase of 
the humblest Greek potter of the best period has an aesthetic 
value far surpassing the most costly productions of the Ce- 
lestial Empire. The porcelain of Japan is in better taste than 
that of China, the dragons being less monstrous and the 
flowers more natural. 

After the introduction of Chinese porcelain into Europe, 
many attempts were made during two centuries to imitate it. 
The first successful experiment was the result of one of those 
accidents which are doubtless of frequent occurrence, although 
the quality of mind required to take advantage of them is 
rare. John Frederick Bottcher was an apothecary's assist- 
ant at Berlin : he was fond of chemistry, and conducted his- 
experiments with so much ardor that the authorities could not 



Pottery and Porcelain — History. 155 

resist the conclusion that he was practicing the black art. 
He found it convenient to make his escape from Berlin and 
to visit Dresden, where the Elector of Saxony, Augustus II., 
patronized chemistry, not from the love of science, but from 
that of gold. Bottcher claimed the protection of the elector, 
•who eagerly inquired of him respecting the transmutation of 
the baser metals. With the natural frankness of his charac- 
ter, Bottcher confessed his ignorance, but was disbelieved. 
"VVhy should a man study chemistry except to enrich himself? 
it was argued ; and as the elector was already patronizing 
the alchemist Tschirnhaus in his endeavors to discover the art 
of transmuting old age into youth, by means of the elixir 
vitce, he associated Bottcher with him, with strict orders not 
to let him out of his sight. Bottcher was employed to seek 
after the philosopher's stone ; and in the course of his experi- 
ments he made some crucibles, which, on being fired, pos- 
sessed many of the characters of oriental porcelain. The 
vessels were made from a brown clay found near Meissen, 
aud they were of a reddish tint. When the result was brought 
before the elector he appreciated its importance ; and in order 
that Bottcher might pursue the inquiry in secret, he sent him 
to the castle of Albrechtsburg, near Meissen, where he was 
magnificently entertained, but restrained in his personal lib- 
erty. So much importance was attached to the secret, that 
during the troubles consequent on the invasion of Saxony by 
Charles XII. of Sweden, Bottcher, Tschirnhaus, and three 
workmen, were sent to the fortress of Konigstein on the Elbe, 
where a laboratory was prepared for them. ]3ottcher's fel- 
low-prisoners formed a plan of escape, which he communica- 
ted to the commandant, whereby he gained favor and a little 
more personal liberty. In 1707 he returned to Meissen, 
where he continued to prosecute his experiments, delighting 
every one around him with his active cheerfulness, and keeping 
up the spirits of the workmen during the furnace operations, 
which sometimes lasted sixty hours consecutively. Tschirn- 
haus died in the following year, and Bottcher enlarged the 
scale of his operations ; he caused a new furnace to be erected, 
and extended the time of firing to five days and five nights. 
The elector was present at the opening of the furnace, and 
expressed his satisfaction at the progress which was being 
made. Up to this time, however, the only result was a kind 



156 Five Black Arts. 

of red and white stone-ware ; and when, in 1709, Bottcher 
succeeded in producing a white porcelain, it became bent, 
and cracked in the fire. The progress, however, was deemed 
to be sufficient to determine Augustine to establish a manu- 
factory at Meissen, and to appoint Bottcher the director. In 
1715 the new factory produced a beautiful description of por- 
celain by means of the kaolin of Aue in the Erzgebirge, the 
discovery of Avhich was made by an ironmaster of the dis- 
trict named Schnorr. This man had observed, while riding 
near the place, that his horse's feet stuck in a soft white te- 
nacious earth, and it occurred to him that if this earth were 
dried and reduced to powder, it would make a good substi- 
tute for hair-powder, which the fashion of the day required, 
all except the poor, to use. Accordingly he manufactured the 
powder in large quantities, and found a ready sale for it in 
Dresden and elsewhere. Bottcher's valet used it, and so in- 
creased the weight of his master's wig as to lead to inquiry ; 
and finding that the new hair-powder was of mineral origin, 
the idea flashed across his mind that this white powder might 
be useful in his experiments. He made the attempt, and was 
delighted to find that he had at length discovered the long 
wdshed-for material for making white porcelain. The secret 
so curiously obtained was for a long time as carefully guarded. 
The powder was made to retain its commercial name of 
" Schnorr's white earth" (^SnorriscTie weisse Erde), its 
export was forbidden, and it was introduced into the factory 
in sealed barrels by persons sworn to secrecy. All persons 
connected with the factory were obliged to take a similar 
oath; no visitor was admitted; and the factory was regulated 
after the manner of a fortress. The motto in large letters, 
" Be secret unto death" (^Geheim his ins G-rab), was set up 
in each room ; the oath to the workmen was renewed every 
month ; and when the king or any distinguished visitor was 
allowed to enter the factory, a similar obligation was im- 
on him. 

But all this parade of secrecy would make it clear to the 
most ill-informed workmen that the secret had a high mark- 
etable value, and we cannot wonder that it should have been 
sold to one or other of the monarchs of Europe, most of whom 
were ambitious to manufacture oriental porcelain. Bottcher 
died in 1719, at the age of thirty-seven, but before his pre- 



Pottery and Porcelain — History. 157 

mature death, a foreman had escaped from the factory, and 
proceeding to Vienna, submitted to be bribed, and it was not 
long before rival factories sprang up in different parts of 
Germany. A few years ago the writer visited the Meissen 
factory, which is pleasantly situated on the banks of the 
Elbe ; it still retains something of its fortress character, al- 
though the workshops are light and cheerful. The principal 
room is adorned with the bust of Bottcher. The factory, 
however, has lost its former vigor : an air of lassitude seems 
to pervade the place, and neither there nor at Sevres are we 
impressed with the idea that the work is being done in earn- 
est, as it is at such an establishment as Minton's at Stoke 
upon-Trent. There can be no doubt that private enterprise, 
unshackled by state restrictions, is the only healthy condition 
of the useful arts. A royal factory, which can neither be- 
come bankrupt nor meet with the wholesome stimulus of com- 
petition, is not likely to be worked at a profit, nor to inspire 
activity in its attendants. 

The temporary success of the Meissen factory depended 
on the singularity of its position. There was a great demand 
in Europe for fine porcelain, and Meissen was in a condition 
to supply it. The first productions of the factory were mostly 
imitations of oriental patterns, but they were deficient in grace 
and lightness. There was a marked improvement when Kand- 
ler, a professional sculptor, was appointed in 1731 to superin- 
tend the modeling. He intruduced wreaths and bouquets, 
animals and groups of figures, with the feeling of an artist. 
The works were arrested by the Seven Years' War ; but 
after this calamity Meissen became celebrated for its exquis- 
ite miniature copies of the best works of the Flemish school, 
together with birds and insects, painted by Lindenir, and 
flowers and animals by the best artists. In 1745, when 
Frederick of Prussia took possession of Dresden, he obtained 
among the spoils of war enormous quantities of porcelain. 
He also removed to Berlin some of the workmen, together 
with the models and moulds of the finest pieces. Again, in 
1759, the factory was plundered and its archives destroyed : 
it revived somewhat under Dietrich the painter, Liich the 
modeler, Breicheisen, and the sculptor Fran9ois Acier. Grad- 
ually, however, the factory ceased to be profitable, and was 
for many years maintained at a loss ; when some years ago the 



158 Five Black Arts. 

king gave It up to the finance department of the state. The 
finest works of art are no longer produced ; and it is also 
stated that the beds of fine clay in the neighborhood are 
nearly exhausted, and that an inferior material from Zittau is 
used instead.* Various marks were placed on different pe- 
riods; the first mark consisted of the letters A. R. (Augus- 
tus Rex), and was placed on all pieces not intended for sale. 
The well-known mark of the electoral swords, crossed, also 
distinguishes Dresden china. Fac-similes of these marks, 
and of the marks and monograms of other celebrated Euro- 
pean potteries, are given in Mr. Marryat's work. 

Among the best of the Dresden works are groups from 
antique models ; lace figures, so called from the fineness of 
the lace-work in the dress ; flowers, evidently studied from 
nature ; and vases richly adorned and incrusted, forming 
what is called honey-comb china. But even during the 
palmy time of this manufacture, namely, from 1731 to 1756, 
the productions were sometimes disfigured by the highly arti- 
ficial taste of the age. 

The first rival of Meissen was the porcelain factory of "Vi- 
enna, which originated in 1720, in consequence of the per- 
jury of a Meissen workman, as already noticed. The fac- 
tory does not, however, appear to have flourished until warmed 
into life by the patronizing smiles of Maria Theresa in 1744, 
and of the Emperor Joseph. The porcelain of Vienna holds 
a lower rank than that of Dresden or of Berlin. It is not 
so light as that of Dresden, and the glazing has a grayish 
tint. Its chief feature is its raised and gilded work, which 
are in good taste, and of late years the apphcation in relief of 
solid platinum and gold. The works are now in private hands, 
and the chief markets for the sale of the ware are in Turkey, 
Russia, and Italy. 

As the Vienna works were based on treachery, so was the 
next important establishment based on the defection of a Vi- 

* This statement is made on the authority of Mr. Marryat ; but at the 
time we are writing an account is given in the German papers of an order 
from Paris having been executed at Meissen, consisting of portraits of the 
Emperor and Empress of the French, of a medallion shape, and inclosed 
in a rich porcelain frame. According to the German critics, " these are the 
finest works of art which porcelain painting has yet produced." If this 
criticism be true, or even partially true, the Meissen works must have ex- 
perienced an extraordinary revival. 



Pottery and Porcelain — History. 159 

ennese workman. A celebrated pottery was already in ex- 
istence at the village of Hochst on the Nldda, when in 1740 
a man named Ringler undertook to superintend the manufac- 
ture of porcelain if the proprietors would introduce it. This 
man appears to have been simply a knave without skill or in- 
vention ; he had committed to writing the various processes of 
the Vienna establishment, and concealing his manuscript 
about his person, consulted it every time he had to give out 
materials to the workmen. As knavery propagates itself, the 
workmen, taking advantage of Ringler's fondness for wine, 
invited him to a feast, where they made him helplessly drunk 
— when they robbed him of his papers, carefully copied his 
recipes, and then decamped to other parts of Germany, 
where they sold the secrets to those who were anxious for 
their possession. Hence originated from one source the por- 
celain factories of Switzerland, of the Lower Rhine, of Cassel, 
and even of Berlin. The Fiirstenburg works, in the duchy 
of Brunswick, originated in a bribe offered by one of the dukes 
to a Hochst workman. The works at Frankenthal in Ba- 
varia originated in a pottery which was visited by Ringler 
after he had been plundered of his papers. The factory of 
Nymphenburg in Bavaria had a similar origin. The porce- 
lain of this factory is much esteemed, many of the designs 
having been furnished by the celebrated picture-gallery of 
Munich. A factory at Baden was conducted by some of the 
Hochst workmen until 1778. The factory of Ludwigsburg, 
begun in 17&8 under the patronage of the Duke of Wirtem- 
berg, has executed some beautiful works, which are known 
as Cronenhurg porcelain, from the town of that name, and 
the mark CO on its wares. The distance from which the 
clay and the fuel had to be procured prevented the suc- 
cess of this establishment. The porcelain factory of Ber- 
lin was first undertaken in consequence of the information 
supphed by the men who robbed Ringler ; but it was not very 
successful until a more magnificent fraud had been perpe- 
trated, namely, the transference of the best of the work- 
people, and the material of the Meissen factory, as already 
referred to. The Berlin porcelain was, of course, only an 
imitation of the Dresden, but the factory was carried on with 
such vigor as to yield to the king an annual revenue of 
200,000 crowns. In 1790 a second royal porcelain factory 



160 Five Black Arts. 

was established about two miles from Berlin. To one of 
Ringler's fraudulent comrades is also due the factory estab- 
lished at Fulda, about 17(53. The prince-bishop of Fulda 
established another factory in a house adjoining the episco- 
pal palace ; but it is said to have failed in consequence of the 
taste for porcelain extending to the dignitaries of the church, 
who claimed the privilege of carrying off specimens without 
paying for them. The porcelain factories of Thuringia 
originated about 1758, when an old woman having sold some 
sand at the house of the chemist Macheleid, his son, struck 
by its appearance, experimented on it, and obtained by its 
means a porcelain-looking substance, whereupon the Prince 
of Schwartzburg sanctioned the erection of a factory at Sitz- 
erode, which was afterward removed to Volkstadt. The abund- 
ance of fuel supplied by the Thuringian forest led to the erection 
of other factories, such as that of Wallendorf in Saxe-Coburg, 
Limbach in Saxe-Meinengen, the director of which succeeded 
so well as to be able to purchase the factory of Grosbreiten- 
bach in Rudelstadt, and also that of Kloster Veilsdorf. Fac- 
tories were also founded at Gotha in 1780, at Hildburghaus, 
at Anspach, at Ilmenau, at Britenbach, and at Gera. All 
these factories had their periods of prosperity, and produced 
porcelain which is still esteemed by collectors. Some of 
them have degenerated into potteries, and some produce pipe- 
bowls as their only article in porcelain. Nor will our list ap- 
proach completeness without mentioning a factory established 
by the Empress Elizabeth in 1756, near St. Petersburg, 
which still continues to produce good porcelain from native 
materials. Denmark has a factory at Copenhagen ; it is sup- 
ported by the government, but is said to be, commercially, a 
failure. The factory at Zurich in Switzerland Avas established 
on the information supplied by one of Ringler's workmen. 
A factory at Nyons, in the Canton de Vaud, has also pro- 
duced some good porcelain. 

During all this active rivalry on the Continent it will not 
be supposed that England had escaped the porcelain-making 
mania. Bow and Chelsea produced the first porcelain works. 
They made a soft ware from a mixture of white clay, white 
sand from Alum Bay, and pounded glass. The Chelsea works 
do not appear to have been in a very flourishing condition 
until George II. imported workmen, models, and materials 



I 



Pottery and Porcelain — History. 161 

from Brunswick and Saxony. Chelsea porcelain then became 
the rage, and such was the eagerness to obtain it, that it was 
sold hy auction to the highest bidders, the dealers rushing in 
crowds to compete for it. Some of the best works were pro- 
duced between 1750 and 1755 : the}' are in the style of the 
best German ; the colors are fine and vivid, and the claret 
color is peculiar. Bow china, made at Stratford-le-Bow, has 
some resemblance to that of Chelsea, but the material is not 
so good. Its principal productions were tea-services and 
dessert-sets. In 1750 was established the factory at Derby, 
which became important in consequence of the introduction 
of the Chelsea artists, workmen, and models, the junction of 
the two factories being notified by the anchor and the letter 
D, the monograms of each manufacture. Flaxman furnished 
designs for the establishment ; but the union did not continue 
long ; the partners quarreled, and one of them destroyed the 
models. Mr. Marryat describes the Derby porcelain as be- 
ing very transparent, of fine quality, and distinguished by a 
beautiful bright blue, often introduced on the border or edge 
of the tea-services, the ground being generally plain ; the 
white-biscuit figures are said to equal those of Sevres. The 
Worcester works were established in 1751 by Dr. Wall 
and some others, under the name of the Worcester Porce- 
lain Company. The company first imitated the blue and 
white Nankin china ; they afterward adopted the Sevres 
style, with the Dresden method of painting. These works 
are remarkable as being the first to make use of the Cornish 
stone or kaolin, discovered by Cookworthy in 1768. They 
are still carried on with distinguished success by Messrs. Kerr 
and Binns. In 1772 a factory was established at Caughley, 
near Broseley, Colebrook Dale, the productions of which are 
known as Salopian ware. Early in the present century some 
good porcelain was made at Nantgarrow and Swansea ; it is 
also stated that the Bristol china, a white Avare formerly com- 
mon in the west of England, was made in Wales, and sold in 
Bristol. 

France regarded with impatience during sixty years the 
progress of porcelain in Europe, and although eminently quali- 
fied in point of taste, skill, and science to contribute to the 
ceramic treasures of the world, she was unable to compete 
"with other nations for want of a suitable raw material. It 
11 



162 Five Black Arts. 

is true that as early as 1695 a soft porcelain had been man- 
uftictured at St. Cloud, and that some of the scientific men 
of France had endeavored, under royal patronage, to discover 
the secrets of the art, but no great success was attained. 
The company had been established at Vincennes, but in 1756 
they removed to a large building which they had erected at 
Sevres. In 1760 Louis XV. bought up the establishment, 
probably at the instigation of Madame de Pompadour, who 
seems to have shared with her sex the passion for china. The 
factory became celebrated for its porcelain, or pate tendre, but 
the great point aimed at was to produce the hard porcelain 
which had rendered Saxony the envy of Europe. But kaolin 
was not known in France, lior was its presence even suspected,- 
until about 1768, when the wife of a surgeon named Darnetof 
St. Yrieix, near Limoges, having noticed in a ravine near the 
town a white unctuous earth, thought that she might relieve 
her husband's poverty somewhat by using it in her house in- 
stead of soap. The surgeon showed a portion of the substance 
to an apothecary of Bordeaux, who being aware of the search 
that was being made for porcelain earth, forwarded a speci- 
men to the chemist Macquer, who recognized it as the much- 
desired kaolin. Assuring himself that an abundant supply 
could be had, he established the manufacture of hard porce- 
lain at Sevres in 1769. At first some difficulty was experi- 
enced in managing the colors upon the more compact and 
less absorbent material, so that the soft porcelain continued 
to be made until the year 1804. 

Such, in few words, is the origin of the hard porcelain of 
Sevres. The pate tendre was not considered as real porce- 
lain, but the taste and skill of the French are remarkable in 
carrying it to the highest pitch of perfection under many diffi- 
culties, arising from its complicated and expensive composi- 
tion, and from its liability to collapse during the firing. Mr. 
Marryat speaks of it as being " remarkable for its creamy 
and pearly softness of color, the beauty of its painting, and 
its depth of glaze." The ware for common or domestic use 
had generally a plain ground, painted with flowers in patterns 
or medallions; articles de luxe^ and pieces intended for royal 
use, had commonly grounds of various colors, such as bleu de 
roi, bleu turquoise, jovquille, or yellow, vert pres, or green, 
and a lively pink or rose color, named after Madame Dubarry. 



Pottery and Porcelain — History. 163 

Skillful artists were employed upon the finest porcelain, which 
is adorned with landscapes, flowers, birds, boys, and cupids 
gracefully arranged in medallions. Some of the Sj ecimens 
are painted with subjects after Watteau, and other known 
masters. The jeweled cups, with the blue de roi ground are 
celebrated. The best period of the soft porcelain was from 
1740 to 1769, and the tests which Mr, Marryat gives to dis- 
tinguish it form its highest praise, namely, "• the beauty of 
the painting, the richness of the gilding, and the depth of 
color." In point of form the Sevres china is not equal to 
that of Dresden. A law was passed in 1766, and renewed 
in 1784, limiting the use of gold in the decoration of porce- 
lain to the royal manufactory of Sevres, which accounts for 
the rarity of old French gilded porcelain. 

At the time of the Revolution many fine specimens of Sev- 
res porcelain in the royal palaces and mansions of the nobility 
were destroyed. The establishment of Sevres, however, was 
supported by the revolutionary government, who appointed 
three commissioners to manage it. In the year 1800 the 
first consul appointed M. Brongniart as director. He held 
the appointment during forty-seven years, and originated the 
celebrated Musee Ceramiqiie, consisting of a historical series of 
specimens illustrative of the ceramic art in all times and among 
all people, together with a collection of raw materials, tools 
implements, trial-pieces, models of furnaces, etc. On our 
visit to this museum, we were particularly struck with a col- 
lection of failures, or specimens showing what had been done 
to overcome faulty results, and what it was hopeless to at- 
tempt. M. Brongniart is also the author of a classical work 
on the art to which he devoted his life with such distinguished 
success.* M. Ebelman succeeded Brongniart as diiector, 
and held the appointment for a year or two. The present 
director, M. Regnault, was appointed by the Emperor Na- 
poleon III. 

The following is a list of the more celebrated porcelain 
manufactures of France : Chantilly, which owed its origin 
in 1735 to a workman from St. Cloud; Menecy, founded in 
1735 under the patronage of the Due de Villeroi ; Sceaux- 

* Traits des Arts C^ramiques ou des Poteries considtTe'es dans leur his- 
toire, lenr pratique, et kur theorie, par Alexandre Brongniart, etc,, etc. 2 
vols. 8vo, with aa Atlas of plates. Paris, 1844. 



164 Five Black Arts. 

penthi^vre, established in 1751 ; Clignancourt, 1750, tinder 
the patronage of the Duke of Orleans ; Etiolles, near Cor- 
boil, 1766; Bourg la Reine, Paris, 1733. Lille, estab- 
lished, it is supposed, in 1708, when the Dutch were masters 
of the town; Arras, 1782; Tournay, 1750. At St. Amand 
les Eaux, near Valenciennes, and at Tournay in Belgium, 
are two factories, the only two in Europe where the old pate 
tendre of Sevres is still produced. 

As respects Icaly, a factory was established at Doccia, 
near Florence, at the beginning of the eighteenth century. 
Venice also manufactured porcelain until 1812. There was 
also a factory at Vineuf, near Turin ; but the most famous 
factory in Italy is the Capo di Monti at Naples, founded by 
Charles III. in 1736. This sovereign appears to have ex- 
celled the other royal amateurs of Europe in the ardor with 
which he cultivated the ceramic art, and he even surpassed 
Augustus III., who was nicknamed by Frederick of Prussia 
" the Porcelain King," and who exchanged a whole regiment 
of dragoons for some huge useless china vases. Charles III. 
even worked in the factory with his own hands, and held an 
annual fair in front of the royal palace at Naples, where there 
there was a shop for the sale of the royal productions ; and there 
was no more certain road to the king's favor than to become a 
purchaser. When Charles became king of Spain he founded a 
factory at Madrid, and that at Naples declined. His suc- 
cessor Ferdinand sanctioned the erection of other porcelain 
works, and allowed the royal workmen to assist in their form- 
ation; and they appear not only to have assisted but to have 
robbed the parent factory of its gold and silver models and 
other valuables. The royal factory was closed in 1821. The 
porcelain of Capo di Monti is not, as is commonly the case, 
an imitation of that of some rival factory. Its beauty and 
excellence are due to the design from shells, corals, embossed 
figures, etc., artistically moulded in high relief. Mr. Mar- 
ryat regards the tea and coffee services of this ware as per- 
haps the most beautiful porcelain articles ever produced in 
Europe, for transparency, thinness of the paste, elegance of 
form, and gracefully-twisted serpent handles, as also for the 
delicate modeling of the ornamental groups in high relief, 
painted and gilt, contrasting well with the plain ground. The 
factory at Madrid was conducted with the utmost secrecy 



Pottery and Porcelain — History. 165 

during several reigns, but was destroyed by tbe French in 
1812. Portugal has a factory of hard porcelain near Oporto. 
The prices paid for porcelain are high. As much as 150Z. 
has been paid for a single specimen of majohca; while a 
service of Chelsea ware has cost 1200^. One of Sevres, of 
a good period, 30,000 livres; while the Dresden ware was 
equally costly. Although our modern manufacturers have 
produced porcelain rivaling that of the best periods of cele- 
brated works, the price still continues to be necessarily high, 
where the materials require to be treated with the precision of 
a chemical process, ond the design and ornamentation require 
high artistic skill. Mr. Minton received lOOOL for his service 
of turquoise and Parian ; Lord Hertford gave 1000/. for two 
vases; Mr. Mills the same; one of the Queen's vases has 
been valued at lOOOZ., and Lord Ward gave 1500/. for a des- 
sert service of Sevres. Such works as these, however, be- 
long rather to the fine arts than the useful arts, to be preserved 
in cabinets and museums. Formerly it was customary on 
great occasions to serve the guests on porcelain, which gave 
to wealth a real distinction. In those days the transition 
from porcelain to earthenware was abrupt ; but through the 
exertions of Wedgwood and others, porcelain now descends 
through numerous varieties of material, style, taste, and dec- 
oration ; so that every class of consumer may suit his own 
taste and means. Our trade in earthenware has of late 
years gone on increasing. In the year 1885 the declared 
value of earthenware exported from the United Kingdom 
was 540,421?. ; in the year 1857 it amounted to 1,488,668/. 
Our exports extend to most parts of the world, including 
Russia, Austria, Turkey, and even France. The United 
States of America take nearly the half of our exports in 
earthenware, so little has the potter's art been encouraged in 
the New World.* Our exports to foreign countries would 
doubtless be larger if the restrictions were fewer and less 
clumsy. In Germany and Italy the duty is levied on the 
weight; so that Wedgwood, on account of the lightness of his 
ware, was long able to command the market in those states. 
In France the duty on common English china of one color, 
without gilding or ornament, is lo4 francs per 1000 kilo- 

* Stone-ware is extensively manufactnred ia Northern Ohio. 



166 Five Black Arts. 

grammes (200 lbs.) ; for fine china, 327 francs for the same 
quantity. The most whimsical of all tariffs is that of Portu- 
gal, where the charge is according to the number of colors ; 
so that, as Mr. Wall remarks, " no man's pojket could stand 
the choice of a rainbow pattern." 

THE MATERIALS. 

Clay, which forms the basis of pottery and earthenware, is 
not only abundant and widely diffused, but presents so many 
varieties that much experience and judgment are required in 
adapting the kind of clay to the article to be manufactured. 
Brongniart enumerates 167 varieties of clay, and states their 
physical and chemical characters, composition, locality, and 
application. Some of the commonest varieties of clay con- 
sist of — 1. Pipe clay. It has a grayish-white color, a 
smooth greasy feel, an earthy fracture ; it adheres to the tongue, 
and is plastic, tenacious, and infusible. It becomes of a cream 
color when fired ; and is used for tobacco-pipes and white pot- 
tery. It is found near Poole in Dorsetshire. — 2. Poster's 
clay. This is of various colors ; those used in the Stafford- 
shire potteries are the brown and blue clays from Dorsetshire,* 
and black and cracking clays from Devonshire. The color 
of the black clay is due to bitumen or coaly matter, which 
disappears in passing through the kiln ; so that the wares 
formed of it are almost white. Cracking clay is esteemed on 
account of its whiteness, but as it is liaMe to crack during 
the firing, it must be mixed with other clays which are free 
from this defect. Brow^n clay when passed through the gloss 
oven sometimes causes the glaze to crack, or craze^ as it is 
called. For ordinary purposes blue clay is preferred ; it can 
be mixed with a larger proportion of flint than the other va- 
rieties, and thus produces a white ware. Potter's clay, mixed 
with sand, is formed into bricks and tiles. — 3. Stourbridge 
clay. This is of a dark color, from the presence of carbon- 
aceous matter, and from its being more refractory than pot- 
ter's clay, it is largely employed for glass pots, crucibles, etc. 
4. Brick clay or loam is abundantly met with on the London 
clay, and is often found on an interposed bed of sand. Its 

* In the year 1855 there were exported from Poole in Dorsetshire 53,702 
tons of Poole clay, and 582 tons were sent to London by railway. 



Pottery and Porcelain — Materials. 167 

appearance, texture, and composition vary greatly; and the 
color depends on the proportion of oxide of iron contained in 
it. — 5. London clay. This is an extensive deposit of bluish 
clay: althouo;h near the suiface, it frequently has the usual 
clay color. It extends over the greater part of Middlesex, 
a portion of Norfolk, and the whole of Essex and Suffolk. 
It is often found near the surface ; but the lower beds are 
sometimes yellowish, white, or variegated. Organic remains 
are found in it. — 6. Plastic day. This skirts the London 
clay within the London chalk basin, and is also found in the 
Isle of Wight. This formation comprises a number of sand, 
clay, and pebble beds, alternating irregularly, and lying im- 
mediately on the chalk. 

The above varieties of clay are mixed with such substances 
as carbonate of lime, magnesia, protoxide of iron, manganese, 
finely -divided quartz, felspar, mica, organic matter, etc., which 
greatly modify its properties and applications. Pure clay is 
soft, more or less unctuous to the touch, white and opaque, 
and has a characteristic odor when breathed upon. It is a 
compound, or perhaps only a mixture, of the two earths, alu- 
mina and silica, with water. Silicate of alumina enters 
largely into the composition of many crystalized minerals, 
among which is felspar, so abundant an ingredient in granite, 
porphyry, and other ancient unstratified rocks. Under cer- 
tain circumstances the felspar undergoes decomposition, and is 
converted into a soft friable mass. In certain districts of 
Devonshire and Cornwall the felspar of the white granite is 
often disintegrated to a great depth, and the rock becomes 
converted into a substance resembling soft mortar. This be- 
ing collected, is thrown into a stream of running water, which 
washes off the argillaceous portions, and holds them suspended 
while the heavier quartz and mica subside. At the extrem- 
ity of these streams the water is dammed up, forming catch- 
pools, where the pure clay sinks and forms a solid mass, which, 
when the water has been drawn off, is dug out in blocks, and 
placed on shelves called linnees to dry. It is next stove- 
dried, crushed, packed in casks, and sent to the potteries, 
under the name of china clay, or kaolin. It consists of 80 
parts alumina and 20 silica ; a proportion of undecomposed 
felspar, under the name of china-stone, is sometimes added 
to the ingredients for porcelain. In the year 1855 as much 



168 Five Black Arts. 

as 60,188 tons of china clay was shipped from Cornwall, and 
19,961 of china-stone ; while Devonshire shipped 20,000 tons 
of pipe clay, and 1100 of china clay. Of late years im- 
proved methods have been adopted for getting out the china 
clay in Cornwall. At the Lee Moor clay-works, for example, 
Mr. Phillips, the managing director, has introduced the foilovy- 
ing arrangements : The decomposed felspar is transferred 
directly from the quarry to the works, where it is thrown into 
hoppers, and passes into a trough under the action of a full 
stream of water, encountering on its way a series of knives and 
iron arras furnished with teeth, which thoroughly beat up the 
clay in its passage along the trough. Pure spring-water is used 
in the operation, and great care is taken to exclude the sur- 
face drainage from the peat soil of Dartmoor. As the water 
leaves the trough it flows through sieves which separate the 
coarser fragments of quartz, and the fluid, charged with clay 
and mica, passes on ; the mica breaking up into thin scales, 
has a tendency to float, but being heavier than the suspended 
alumina, it gradually subsides under the regulation of the 
current, which is now not sufficiently rapid to carry on the 
mica, nor sufficiently sluggish to allow of the deposition of the 
clay. When at length the stream holds nothing but pure clay, 
it is allowed to flow into deep V-shaped channels, which term- 
inate in large covered reservoirs, in which the clay is deposit- 
ed. Warm-air pipes circulate beneath the reservoirs, so as 
produce a temperature of 90°. The fine clay soon subsides, 
so as to allow of the clear water above it being drawn oiF. 
The vameral pegmatite is also valuable, as containing all the 
ingredients for hard porcelain. It consists of felspar, kaolin, 
and a small proportion of prismatic quartz. The mineral 
must, however, be in the state of decomposition already re- 
ferred to. The quartz gives whiteness and transparency to 
hard ware ; but for soft porcelain bones are substituted. 
These melt into a kind of semi-transparent enamel, which 
imparts transparency to the ware. Steatite, or soap-stone, is 
also an ingredient in porcelain. The statuary porcelain 
known as Parian or Carrara, from its similarity to those 
beautiful marbles, owes its effect chiefly to the use of a soft 
felspar instead of Cornish stone; while its agreeable yellow- 
ish-white tint is due to the presence of a small portion of 
oxide of iron contained in the clays and the felspar. 



Pottery and Porcelain — Materials. 169 

The property possessed by clay of forming a perfectly 
plastic mass with water, and of bein;^ permanently fixed by 
heat, has led to its employment in the manufacture of bricks 
and vessels of various kinds, but it undergoes a large amount 
of contraction in drying and burning, to diminish which the 
clay is usually mixed with a considerable proportion of quartz- 
sand, or with the powder of previously-burnt clay. The 
quartz in pottery ware is in the form of flints ; these are ob- 
tained from the chalk districts of Gravesend and Newhaven; 
they are white outside, but dark and clear within. Such 
flints should be selected the fracture of which is free from 
yellovv or iron stains. 

The preparation of the clay for such coarse articles as tiles 
consists first in weathering, or spreading it out to the action 
of the air, so that by absorbing water the articles may sep- 
arate, and the clay work freely. It should be exposed to at 
least one night's frost, or to one day's sun, before a second 
layer is added to the first. The weather- clay is cast into 
pits, and left for some time covered wich water to melloiv or 
ripen. Before being used it is tempered by grinding in a 
pug-mill. If the clay befoul, or contain many stones, it is 
slung, or cut into lengths of about two feet with a sHng or 
wire-knife, and then further divided into slices of three- 
quarters of an inch in thickness, during which operation the 
stones fall out, or are picked out. The clay goes once more 
through the pug-mill, and is then ready for the moulder. 
For chimney-pots and such articles the clay is slung once or 
twice, and pugged or ground two or three times. 

The clay for fine pottery undergoes a number of prepara- 
tory processes. Two or more kinds of clay being put to- 
gether in proportions according to the judgment of the man- 
ufacturer, they are thrown into a trough with water and left 
for some hours. They are then well worked with a long blade 
of ash furnished with a cross-handle, named a hlunger, until 
a smooth pulp is formed, a pint of which weighs 24 ounces, 
or, in the case of china clay, 26 ounces. The operation of 
blunging, as it is called, may be assisted by pugging the clay 
in an iron cylinder furnished with knives on the inside, and a 
moving vertical axis also containing knives, which by their 
joint action divide the clay, and by their position force it 
downward, and out through an opening at the bottom. It is 



170 Five Black Arts. 

then removed to a vat, mixed with water, and blunged by 
means of cross-arms attached to a perpendicular shaft. In 
this operation stony particles sink to the bottom. 

The flints having been heated in a kiln, and plunged in 
cold water to increase their brittleness, are crushed into frag- 
ments by means of stampers, and are next reduced to pow- 
der in difimt-pan. This is a circular vat ten or twelve feet 
in diameter, the bottom of which consists of masonry of 
quartz or felspar. In the center is a vertical axis, from which 
radiate four arms for moving the runners : these are masses 
of chert, a hard siliceous stone found near Bakewell in Der- 
byshire. The broken flints are thus ground with water, and 
in the course of some hours are reduced to powder, which 
forms with the water a creamy mixture. Felspar, broken 
porcelain, etc., is sometimes ground up in the same manner 
in smaller vats. The creamy mixture is transferred to an- 
other vat furnished with a vertical shaft and arms, and being 
diluted with water, the arms are set rotating, the effect of 
which is to keep the finer siliceous particles suspended, while 
the coarser ones sink to the bottom. The former are drawn 
off with the water, and the latter are sent back to the flint- 
pan. The water thus drawn off is received into a reservoir, 
in which the finer particles subside. The creamy mixture of 
flint and water is fit to mix with the clay when a wine pint of 
it weighs 32 ounces. The proportions, however, in which the 
clay and the flint are mingled vary greatly with the kind of 
ware intended to be made, and the experience of the manu- 
facturer. 

These proportions being determined, the ingredients are 
first mingled by being agitated together, after which the mix- 
ture is passed through sieves of fine hard-spun silk, arranged 
on different levels, so as to run through comparatively coarse 
into finer sieves, and thus produce a smooth, uniform mixture 
of slip, as it is called. To assist the easy passage of the mix- 
ture a jigging motion is given to the sieves. The water which 
has thus far served as a vehicle for the ingredients, is next got 
rid of by evaporation in the slip-kiln. This is a long brick 
trough, heated by flues underneath, and capable of raising 
the water to the boiling point. During the heating the slip 
is diligently stirred to prevent the heavier flint from subsid- 
ing, and also to prevent the flint and clay from forming a 



Pottery and Porcelain — Manufacture. 171 

kind of mortar with the water. When bubbles of steam cease 
to form, the operation is at an end. In countries where fuel 
is not so abundant as in England, the water is got rid of by 
filtration, assisted by mechanical pressure, or by rarefying 
the air beneath the filter by atmospheric pressure. 

When the stuff is of uniform texture and sufiiciently hard, 
it is cut up into wedges Avhich are dashed down upon each 
other, in order to get rid of vesicles and air- bubbles, which 
might aft(.rward form blisters in the ware. To obtain a fine 
grain the clay should be tvedged at intervals during several 
months. It is stated that in China the stuif is prepared many 
years in advance. The French missionaries were informed 
that it was customary to prepare the stuff for a hundred years 
(^pour cent annees}, whence arose a fanciful derivation of the 
word porcelain. However this may be, there is no doubt 
that newly-made stuff produces bad ware, and that ageing 
greatly improves it. During the last-named process a kind 
of fermentation sets in, carbonic acid and sulphide of hydro- 
gen are liberated, and the mass improves in texture and color. 
These gases are doubtless formed at the expense of the car- 
bonaceous and organic impurities of the clay or of the water, 
whence the improvement in color ; while the disengagement 
of the gas accounts for the improvement in texture. The 
next process is slappivg, in which the woi'kman takes up a 
mass of the paste and dashes it down with violence, then 
dividing the mass with a wire, he dashes the top on the lower; 
this is done many times, care being taken to preserve the 
grain — that is, to slap the layers parallel to each other, and 
not obliquely, otherwise the paste would be liable to fall apart 
during the firing. 

THE MANUFACTURE. 

There are three processes by which fictile articles are 
shaped — namely, throiving, pressing^ and casting. Of these 
throwing is the most common, and by far the most ancient. 
It is performed by means of the potter's wheel or lathe, which 
is a disc of wood fastened to the top of a vertical spindle, 
and made to rotate by being connected by means of a strap 
with a multiplying wheel driven by an attendant. The paste, 
as it is received from the slapper, is of the consistence of 
dough. The thrower's attendant cuts it up into portions, 



172 Five Black Arts. 

weighs each, according to the quantity required for the in- 
tended article, and rolls each portion up into a ball. The 
thrower, seated before his lathe, dashes one of the balls down 
upon the rotating board, and with the fingers, which are fre- 
quently dipped in water, raises the lump into a conical form, 
presses down the mass to get rid of air-bubbles, and with one 
hand, or finger and thumb, in the mass, gives shape to the 
intended article ; he is also furnished with a piece of horn or 
porcelain called a rib, the edge of which accurately repre- 
sents the curve of rhe vessel. With this he smooths the inner 
surface, and gives it shape. During this operation the assist- 
ant turns the wheel with varving rates of speed, so that the 
centrifugal force may act differently in different conditions 
of the growing vessel. The thrower is furnished with a rude 
kind of fixed gauge, consisting of an upright stick, from which 
projects a horizontal rod at such a height above the whirling 
table as to enable the thrower to make all the articles of one 
kind very nearly of the same size. When one article is fin- 
ished, it is removed by passing a wire beneath it, and is set 
aside in an airy or a warm room until sufficiently consolidated 
for the next operation, which is taming. As it would not be 
possible for the thrower to produce articles sufficiently thin, 
they are reduced in size by being put on the chuck of a lathe, 
and turned to shape by means of cutting tools, the material 
flying off in long, broad shavings just as if it were wood. 
When it has thus been properly thinned and brought to shape, 
the vessel is smoothed and solidified by the pressure of a broad 
tool upon its surface. Handles, spouts, etc., are formed sep- 
arately, and are attached to the articles by means of slips. 
Flowers, leaves, etc., are formed partly in moulds and partly 
by hand, and are stuck on separately. The article is lastly 
trimmed with a knife, and cleaned with a damp sponge, and 
is ready for the kiln. 

By the process of pressing, such articles as plates, dishes, 
saucers, etc., are formed. The exact pattern, say of a plate, 
having been determined by means of a model, a number of 
plaster casts are taken, one of which the plate-maker places 
on a whirling table, bats out a sufficient quantity of paste by 
means of a plaster mallet, and when sufficiently extended, 
places it on the mould, much in the same way as a housewife 
would cover a pie with paste. The table is then set whirling. 



Pottery and Porcelain — Manufacture. 173 

and a profile or shape in earthenware being brought down upon 
the paste, gives the required form to the bottom of the in- 
tended plate. When the plate-maker is satisfied with his 
work, the mould, with the plate in its green state, as it is 
called, upon it, is conveyed by a boy to a warm room, and he 
brings back an empty mould, which has been drying, for an- 
other plate. In about two hours the plate is sufficiently dry 
to be removed from the mould, but the mould itself is left to 
dry before it is used again. One man and two boys can pro- 
duce from sixty to seventy dozen of common plates in a day 
of ten hours, the same mould being used some five or six 
times during the day. 

The above operation is called flat-ivare pressing. Deep 
vessels are formed by what is called holloiv-ware p7'es8{7ig or 
squeezing, for which purpose the mould consists of several 
parts, which fit accurately together by means of projecting 
pins and cavities. The clay having been batted out, the sev- 
eral parts of the mould carefully lined with it, and the points 
of junction well worked and wetted with slip, are brought 
together and secured by a cord, when the joints are further 
well worked and pressed, thin rolls of clay being some- 
times inserted, and the whole worked and smoothed with 
moist leather and a cow's lip. The interior is then washed 
with a sponge, set aside for a time, and when somewhat so- 
lidified, is worked or polished with a flexible plate of horn ; 
it is next put into a warm room, and when the plaster has ab- 
sorbed sufficient moisture, the article is removed from the 
mould and fettled or trimmed with proper tools to get rid of 
seam marks. The outside is also cleaned with a moist sponge, 
and the handles, etc., having been added, and the horn again 
used, it is set aside for baking. For elaborate works, mod- 
els are formed by experienced artists in clay, and the moulds 
for the separate parts may be numerous. Works of a com- 
paratively simple character are formed by the united agency 
of throwing and moulding. 

By the third process, called casting, such delicate articles 
as egg-shell china are formed. The paste having been re- 
duced to a creamy state, is poured into a plaster-mould, 
which, absorbing water from that portion of the paste which 
comes in contact with it, fixes it, so as to allow the remaining 
fluid portion to be poured off". A very thin coating of paste 



174 Five Black Arts. 

is thus left attached to the mould ; when this is sufficiently dry, 
the mould is again filled for a short time with the creamy 
mixture, when a second thin deposit is formed upon the first. 
The mould having been dried in a warm room, the cast is 
taken out, examined, and touched upon by the modeler. 
Busts and statuettes are also formed in this way ; but as they 
shrink as much as one-fourth during the firing, considerable 
dexterity is required to preserve their shape. The lace 
which is sometimes seen on these figures is real lace, dipped 
into slip, when the heat of the kiln destroys the thread, and 
solidifies the paste, which takes its place. 

Encaustic tiles are made by what may be called a fourth 
process, namely, veneering. They consist of a body of red 
clay, faced with a finer clay for the pattern, and strengthened 
at the bottom with another clay, the junction of these layers 
apparently preventing warping. After the usual preparatory 
processes, the red clay is slapped into the form of a quad- 
rangular block, from which the tile-maker cuts off a slab with 
a wire, and upon this the facing of finer clay, colored to the 
required tint, is batted out and slapped down. The bottom 
facing is added in a similar manner. The tile is then put 
into a box- press, when a plaster of Paris slab, with the pat- 
tern in relief, is brought down on the face of the tile, and 
impresses in the soft tinted clay the design, the hollow be- 
ing afterward filled up with clay of another color. At the 
same time, the maker's name is stamped at the back, together 
with a few holes to make the mortar adhere. The colored 
clay, in a creamy state, is next poured over the face of the 
tile, so as completely to conceal it, and when, in the course 
of twenty-four hours, this colored slip has become hard, 
the superfluous clay is scraped away, the colored clay be- 
ing left only in the hollows formed by the pattern-mould. 
The tile having been finished oif with a knife, and defects 
corrected, is kept during a week in a warm room, called the 
green-house, and the drying is finished in a warmer room, 
called the hot-house, preparatory to firing. 

The various articles of pottery, stone-ware, or porcelain 
having, by one or other of the processes named, been perfect- 
ed as to form, and handles and other appendages, and solid 
ornaments added, are now in what is called the green state. 
The next process is to fix them, and deprive them of their 



Pottery and Porcelain — Manuj<acture. 175 

plastic nature by the action of heat. The potter^ s kiln con- 
sists of a massive domed cylinder of brick-work, bound with 
iron, and protected from the weather by an outer conical hood 
or casing. The dome contains openings for the exit of the 
smoke, which escapes into the air through a chimney in the 
hood. Heat is supplied by means of six or eight fireplaces 
fixed round the cylinder, with proper circulating flues and 
dampers for regulating the draught. During the firing, the 
ware (unless of the commonest kind) is not exposed to the 
direct action of the fire, but is carefully packed in strong ves- 
sels, shaped very much like band-boxes ; they are made of 
Staffordshire marl, and are called seggars. The pieces must 
be packed in the seggars in such a way as to economize space, 
and yet give them the full benefit of the heat ; at the same 
time, they must be arranged according to their size and solid- 
ity, so that small and delicate articles may not vitrify under 
too strong a heat, and large ones have heat enough. Some 
articles admit of being placed in contact, so as to support 
each other and prevent distortion. When the pieces are large 
or complicated in shape, they may require special supports to 
prevent warping ; these supports are of fire-clay, and nicely 
fit the parts supported. Articles in porcelain are sometimes 
separated during the firing by means of sand or powdered 
flint; but the contrivances of this kind are numerous. When 
the seggars are filled, they are conveyed to the furnace, and 
piled up so that the flat bottom of one seggar may form a 
cover to the open mouth of the seggar immediately beneath 
it, the surfaces being separated by a ring of soft clay, which 
forms a tight joint. As many as 30,000 pieces of ware may 
be included in one baking. When the seggars are properly 
arranged in piles, or bungs, as they are called, and steadied 
by means of short struts, the door of the kiln is closed with 
brick-work, the fires are lighted usually in the evening, and 
are urged during the whole of the night, so that flame may 
be seen issuing from the chimney. Early in the morning the 
man draws his first watch. Watches or trial-pieces are small 
rings of fire-clay, which vary in color with the temperature ; 
a number of these are placed within the kiln in such positions 
that the man can withdraw them at pleasure by inserting a 
long iron rod through holes in the side of the kiln. The 
heat is regulated according to the aspect of these watches, and 



176 Five Black Arts. 

when, after thirty or forty hours, the firing appears to have 
been satisfactory, no more fuel is added, the fires are left to 
go out, and the kiln gradually cools during the next twenty or 
thirty hours. As much as fourteen tons of coal may be con- 
sumed in one firing. There can be no doubt that a very 
large proportion of this fuel is wastefully expended : our pres- 
ent abundant native store of coal leads to much extravagance 
in our various factories ; and it has been suggested by M. Ar- 
naux, a competent authority, to fire the ware by means of 
gas, which, he thinks, can be done with an ease and precision 
unattainable by the present system. 

When the ware is removed from the kiln, its characters are 
found to have undergone a remarkable change. Instead of a 
soft, dull, friable or plastic material, we have a hard, brittle, 
resonant, light-colored, porous body. In this state it is call- 
ed biscuit, from its resemblance to well-baked ship bread. 
"Wine-coolers and similar porous articles, when brought to 
this state, are finished ; but most articles, especially of earth- 
enware, must be covered with some kind of vitreous glaze, 
to remove their porosity and liability to tarnish, and to ren- 
der them fit for use. If colored ornaments have to be added, 
these are first put upon the biscuit, and the glaze, in the form 
of a white powder, is then made to cover the whole article, 
which, being passed a second time through the fire, the pow- 
der melts into a glass, which forms the ordinary surface of com- 
mon wares. Ihe firing is a costly process, from the great 
expenditure of time and fuel, and this second firing still fur- 
ther increases the cost of the ware. It thus became a great 
improvement Avhen "Wedgwood was able so to compound the 
ingredients of his ware that partial vitrification took place at 
the first fir ing, thereby depriving the ware of its porous char- 
acter, and rendering a second firing unnecessary. So also, 
in the commonest kind of stone-ware, such as is made at the 
Lambeth potteries, the glazing is, by an ingenious device, 
efiected simultaneously with the baking. "When the ware has 
attained a very high temperature in the kiln, a quantity of 
moist salt (chloride of sodium) is thrown in ; the salt is vol- 
atilized and decomposed in the presence of moisture, and by 
contact with the heated surfaces of the clay, hydrochloric acid 
is disengaged, and the ware becomes covered with silicate 
of soda, which, combining with the silicate of alumina of the 



Pottery and Porcelain — Manufacture. 177 

ware forms a fusible double alkaline silicate or glaze on the 
surface. 

The object of the glaze being to render the article imper- 
meable by water, attempts have been made to accomplish 
that end in various ways. Certain rude nations render their 
wares impermeable by rubbing them while hot with tallow, 
which, becoming partially decomposed, fills up the pores, and 
imparts a black color. Even the vases of the artistic Etrus- 
cans and Greeks have not a vitreous but a carbonaceous glaze, 
which wears off in the handling. The wine and oil jars of 
Spain and Italy are made water-tight by the ancient method 
of rubbing them over with wax. The most common descrip- 
tion of glaze is, as its name glaze or glass implies, vitreous. 
It is of two kinds, transparent and opaque. When the ware 
is of good color, and the ornaments are impressed upon it, 
the glaze may be transparent ; but where the clay, otherwise 
good in quality, is bad in color, an opaque glaze, or enamel, 
as it is then called, is used. In some cases, articles made of 
a good clay, of a bad color, may, before firing, be dipped into 
a slip of white clay, and being thus veneered, admit of taking 
a transparent glaze. Glazes colored by means of a metallic 
oxide are also sometimes used. The glaze should not have 
too strong an affinity for the paste, or during the second fir- 
ing it may be absorbed into the ware instead of remaining 
at the surface, to which it should adhere firmly, and expand 
and contract equally with the ware, so as not to be liable to 
craze or crack. Numerous substances are employed in the 
composition of glaze. For very hard ware, in which the 
point of fusion is high, the felspars and certain volcanic scoriae 
are used ; in other cases, common salt, potash, boracic acid, 
phosphate of lime, and sulphate of baryta, are the ingredients. 
Another class of glazes contains earthy and metallic substan- 
ces, mixed or fritted into a glass ; such are silica and lead, 
or enamels of silica, tin, and lead. Some glazes contain me- 
tallic oxides, such as those of manganese, lead, and copper. 
Metallic and earthy substances, if not previously fritted, form 
a glaze with the silica of the paste in the gloss oven. Such 
glazes, however, are commonly soft, and liable to be acted on 
by acid and fatty substances ; so that lead glazes should be 
avoided for articles intended to receive food. In such cases, 
borax may be advantageously substituted for lead. A pure 
12 



178 Five Black Arts. 

-white paste is improved by a transparent glaze, but if of bad 
color, it may be dipped into opaque glazes even before the 
first firing. Glazes are made opaque by means of oxide of 
tin ; color is given by the oxides of manganese, copper, and 
iron ; while, by introducing these, together with the oxides of 
cobalt and of chromium, into opaque and transparent glazes, an 
agreeable variety is produced. Pegmatite forms a good glaze 
for hard porcelain ; but for soft porcelain a glass is fritted and 
mixed with oxide of lead, or with earthy substances. 

In applying the glaze to the biscuit, it is reduced to a fine 
powder, and mixed with water. When the biscuit is plunged 
into this mixture, the porous material immediately absorbs a 
quantity of the water, and leaves the powder equally distrib- 
uted over its surface. When articles are glazed and fired 
at one operation, the ware in its green state is not absorbent, 
so that the glazing has to be put on with a brush. For ar- 
ticles which are glazed on the inside only, such as pipkins, 
the glaze is made creamy with water, and poured into the 
vessel and then out again, a sufficient quantity adhering to the 
surface by this means. Custom requires that jars shall have 
a portion of their surface of a deeper brown than the natural 
color of the material ; they are therefore dipped to a certain 
height in a mixture of red ocher and clay slip. The glaz- 
ing is completed during the firing by means of common salt, 
as already noticed. 

The pieces having been covered with white powder, are 
arranged in seggars to protect them from the direct action of 
the fire in the gloss oven. They are separated from each 
other by means of supports, which present the smallest pos- 
sible surface of contact. These supports, known as cockapurs, 
triangles, stilts, etc., have points projecting from them above 
and below, which serve to separate, while they support, the 
articles as they are piled up in the seggars. The seggars 
are piled up in the glaze-kiln in the same manner as in the 
biscuit-kiln, and the temperature is raised to a point sufficient 
to fuse the glaze into a transparent glass, andto unite it per- 
fectly with the surfaces of the ware. To enable the workmen 
to determine when the proper temperature has been reached, 
watches, or rings of clay, covered with glaze, are placed in 
the oven, and drawn out from time to time. 



Pottery and Porcelain — Ornamentation. 179 

the ornamentation. 

The love of ornament, which forms part of that higher 
sense of beauty common to our nature requires the addition 
of some kind of adornment to articles in common use. The 
rude pottery of savage nations is relieved in this way, and 
often with considerable taste. It may admit of question 
whether our own taste is equally correct in the elaborate dec- 
orations which we bestow upon articles intended for every-day 
use. Plates of Sevres porcelain, richly decorated with land- 
scapes, or portraits of distinguished individuals, may have a 
high artistic value, but are certainly not adapted to be placed 
before the company at a dinner-table. A dessert or dinner- 
plate is not in itself remarkable for beauty of form ; but its 
effect is absolutely hideous when it is made to take a promi- 
nent part in decoration. In the palace at Fontainebleau we 
were introduced to a room, the walls of which were decora- 
ted with plates of Sevres china, arranged in horizontal lines. 
In such an example, the costliness of the material and the 
skill of the artists were rendered simply rediculous. So also 
the rich blue and gold of a tea-service have too heavy an 
effect, when the feeling of grace and lightness ought to be 
inspired. The leading idea in ceramic ware should be that of 
purity. The white color would sufficiently suggest this if it 
were not concealed by ornament, just as that pure material 
glass, when not spoilt by the glass-cutter, reveals the unsulli- 
ed transparency of the water or of the wine contained in it. 
The artist may exercise his taste in producing beauty of form, 
but the ornamentation of that form should be of the simplest 
character, only just calculated to relieve the beauty of the 
material. Our limited space will not allow us to enlarge on 
this subject, so that we at once proceed to a brief notice of 
the mechanical and chemical means by which ornaments are 
applied to pottery and porcelain. 

When common ware is to be ornamented with a pattern, 
it is put on before the glazing. The blue pattern of an ordi- 
nary plate is printed on the biscuit with an ink composed of 
boiled linseed-oil, resin, tar, and oil of amber, colored by 
means of a mixture of oxide of cobalt, ground flint, and sul- 
phate of baryta (fritted and ground), and blended with a 
flux of ground flint and thick glass powder, which serves to 



180 Five Black Arts. 

fix the color. The ink is made fluid by spreading it on a hot 
iron plate. It is taken up by means of a leathern dubber, 
and transferred to engraved copperplates, also heated, and 
the superfluous color is scraped off with a pallet-knife, and 
the surface of the plate is cleaned with a dossil. A sheet of 
yellow unsized paper is next dipped into soapy water, and 
placed on the copperplate, which is thus passed through a 
cylinder press. The pattern is thus transferred to the paper, 
which is taken by a girl called the cutter, who cuts away the 
unprinted portions, and leaves the pattern in separate parts. 
These are taken by a woman called the transferrer, who 
places each portion with its printed side next the biscuit, and 
rubs it with a flannel rubber, until the ink is properly absorbed. 
The pattern-papers are subsequently removed by placing the 
biscuit in water, and gently washing it with a brush. The 
biscuit is next dried in an oven, and is then ready for glazing; 
the heat of the gloss oven vitrifies the glaze, and allows the 
pattern to be seen through it. Instead of paper, a flexible 
sheet of glue, called a paper or hat, is in some cases used for 
transferring the design. The impression is taken in oil from 
the engraved plate, and after it has been transferred to the 
biscuit, the required color is dusted over it in a dry state. 
The sheet of glue can be cleaned with a sponge, and can be 
used over and over again. 

When the pattern is required to produce high artistic ef- 
fects of form and color, the work is performed by hand with 
a camel-hair pencil. The colors consist of metallic oxides 
ground up with such vitrifiable substances as glass, niter, and 
borax, oil of turpentine or of lavender being the usual vehi- 
cle. The greatest difficulty which the artist has to contend 
with arises from the fact, that the colors are for the most part 
dingy and unpleasing, and give no idea to an inexperienced 
eye of the intended effect.* It is not until the heat of the 
furnace has driven off the oil, and chemically combined the 

* Attempts have been made to construct a pallet of enamel colors whicli 
do not change color in the firing, but only change from a dullness to a 
creaminess of texture. A case of this kind is mentioned by Brongniart, 
but the success attained by the inventor, M. Dihl, was only partial ; since 
the rose tints, purple, and violet, produced by the precipitate of cassius, 
which cannot be prevented from changing under the action of heat, were 
omitted. Besides this, the action of the surface, and the different kind of 
glaze upon the colors were not taken into account. 



Pottery and Porcelain — Ornamentation. 181 

ingredients of the colors, that the effect can be judged of. 
The artist has thus to work, as it were, in the dark : he is 
not cheered with the idea of progress, as in the ordinary oil- 
painting, where the work seems to grow into life, and to de- 
velop new details of beauty at every touch. Even after the 
first firing, it by no means follows that success has been at- 
tained. The work may have to be retouched, and again 
passed through the fire, or it may be injured by one or other 
of the numerous accidents to which a work is liable which 
has to pass through the fire. 

The colors used are formed by the combination of certain 
metallic oxides and salts with certain fluxes, by means of 
heat, which enables them to fuse into colored glasses. The 
oxides are usually those of chromium, of iron, of uranium, of 
manganese, of zinc, of cobalt, of antimony, of copper, of tin, 
and of iridium. The salts and other bodies used for impart- 
ing color are the chromates of iron, of baryta, and of lead, 
the chloride of silver, the purple precipitate of cassius, burnt 
umber and burnt sienna, red and yellow ochers, etc. Some 
of these develop their colors under the influence of the high- 
est temperature of the porcelain furnace, and are hence called 
by the French chemists eouleurs de grand feu; others, and 
by far the larger number, are termed mvffl.e-colors, inasmuch 
as they become developed under the more moderate heat of 
the muffle, which is a kind of seggar, in which the painted 
ware is inclosed, to protect it from the fuel. The first class 
of colors is limited to the blue produced by oxide of cobalt, 
the green of oxide of chromium, the brown produced by iron, 
manganese, and chromate of iron, the yellows from oxide of 
titanium, and the uranium blacks. Those colors form the 
grounds of hard porcelain, and as the heat employed in firing 
it is capable of fusing felspar, that substance is used as the 
flux. For an indigo blue, four parts oxide of cobalt and seven 
parts felspar, or for a pale blue, one part oxide of cobalt and 
thirty parts felspar, are well pounded, mixed by repeated 
siftings, and vitrified in a crucible in the porcelain furnace. 
The resulting glass is reduced to powder, ground up with a 
volatile oil, and applied to the surface of the biscuit, which, 
being again raised to the high temperature of the porcelain 
furnace, the color fuses, and becomes incorporated with the 
substance of the ware. The high temperature required for 



182 Five Black Arts. 

cobalt has, however, this inconvenience, that a portion of it 
becomes volatile, so as to affect objects placed near it. In 
this waj a white vase in the same furnace may derive a blue 
tint from the vapor of the cobalt. This color is also uncer- 
tain in its results : it sometimes leaves white uncolored 
patches, or forms a dull granular surface. Oxide of chromium 
may be employed without a flux to give a green color to hard 
porcelain ; but as it does not, under such circumstances, pen- 
etrate the ware, it is liable to scale off. A bluish-green is 
produced from three parts oxide of cobalt, one part oxide of 
chromium, and one-tenth of felspar, without fritting. Mix- 
tures of the oxides of iron, manganese, and cobalt, produce 
a fine black, and by omitting the cobalt, various shades of 
brown. 

The muffle colors are too numerous to be stated here ; 
they are fired at a temperature equal to about the fusing 
point of silver. Many of them would become more brilliant 
and solid under a greater heat, but this would be injurious to 
those colors which are obtained from the purple precipitate of 
cassius,* on which the artist relies for some of his finest ef- 
fects, such as fine purple, violet, and carmine tints. 

In preparing metallic oxides and their fluxes sound chemi- 
cal knowledge is required, otherwise the results cannot be de- 
pended on. The chemist relies on the stability of nature, 
as revealed to him by his science : he reduces his materials 
to a state of chemical purity, and compounds them according 
to the law of definite proportions. In order, for example, 
that the yellow color imparted by chromate of lead shall be 
identical at all times, the compound must obviously consist of 
nothing but equal equivalents of oxide of lead and chromic 
acid. In such case, if the pigment be applied at different 
times under the same circumstances, it will produce precisely 
similar results; but if either of the proximate elements of the 
salt be impure, no reliance can be placed on the compound. 
Different specimens will produce different results, although 
the game mode of applying them be always observed. la 
some cases, however, not even the chemical purity of the in- 
gredients will insure harmonious results. The physical con- 
dition of one of the ingredients may be of importance, as in 

* This pigment is formed by adding a solution of gold in aqua regia to oue 
of chloride of tin. 



Pottery and Porcelain — Ornamentation. 183 

the case of oxide of zinc, an ingredient in some of the en- 
amel greens, yellows, yellow-browns, and blues. If the ox- 
ide be lumpy, granular, dense, and friable, it will produce a 
dull pigment, although chemically pure, while a light floccu- 
lent impalpable oxide, chemically identical with the former, 
will give satisfactory results. It is further necessary that so- 
lutions of a metal be made at the same temperature, that the 
acids which dissolve it be of the same strength, that the pre- 
cipitate be neither more nor less rapid on one occasion than 
on another. Such conditions as these require to be carefully 
studied and noted, as, indeed, has been done in the labora- 
tory at Sevres, where minute records are kept of the pro- 
cesses required for compounding the colors. 

But even when such conditions as the above are known and 
observed, there are others so slight as scarcely to be appre- 
ciable, but which, nevertheless, have an influence on the color. 
With certain delicate pigments, the poiphyrization or grinding 
with water or oil a little more or less, the difference of touch 
of different artists in laying on the same pigment, will pro- 
duce differences in tone, although all the other conditions be 
strictly observed. 

Dumas defines the process of painting on hard porcelain 
to be the art of soldering by heat to a layer of the glaze a 
layer of fusible color, the dilatation of which shall be the 
same as that of the glaze and the body of the ware. The 
function of the flux is to envelop the color and attach it to 
the glaze. In most cases it has no action on the color, but 
is simply mechanically mixed with it: the flux, however, must 
mix with the glaze. That muffle colors do not penetrate the 
porcelain, may be proved by boiling in nitric acid a piece of 
painted ware after it has been fired, when the colors will dis- 
appear. As the flux is only a mechanical vehicle for the 
color, it must vary with the color; but the necessity for mix- 
ing or blending colors greatly limits the range of fluxes. A 
common flax is the silicate of lead, or a mixture of this with 
borax. Now the borax cannot be replaced by the fixed al- 
kalies, on account of the readiness with which soda or potash 
becomes displaced in order to form other compounds. They 
have also a tendency to make the colors scale off. The mode 
of using the fluxes varies with the color: in some cases it 
may be ground up in proper proportions with the color ; in 



184 Five Black Arts. 

others it must be previously fritted with the color. The first 
mode is adopted when the coloring oxide is readily altered by 
heat; but when the oxide requires a high temperature to 
bring out its characteristic color, the second method is adopted. 

Not the least among the difficulties of enamel-painting is 
the high temperature required for the vitrification of the 
colors. The lowest heat of the muffl,e is about 1100° Fahren- 
heit ; while some oxides do not develop their color below 
1850°. In the regulation of the furnace, the most successful 
method is to begin with a low heat, and urge it rapidly up to 
its maximum, and as rapidly to lower the heat. A moderate 
heat, long continued, may produce devitrification — that is, the 
elements of the flux may separate, and combine again in a 
different manner, so as to produce an opaque substance known 
as Reaumur's porcelain. There is danger in the opposite 
extreme ; for if the temperature be carried too high, some of 
the more delicate tints, such as the roses and the grays, be- 
come faint or vanish altogether, while the hardier greens, 
blues, and blacks remain. On the other hand, if the maxi- 
mum temperature be not quite reached, the colors do not pre- 
sent that peculiar creaminess and glossiness which is charac- 
teristic of the art. The temperature is regulated by means 
of watches, consisting of small slabs of porcelain smeared 
with some trial color, usually the carmine produced by the 
purple precipitate of cassius. This forms a useful exponent 
of all the other pigments : it varies greatly in tint according 
to the temperature ; so that, by arranging a scale of temper- 
atures corresponding with a scale of tints, a tolerably accu- 
rate thermoscope may be formed. Brongniart invented a 
pyrometer for estimating the temperature of the interior of 
the muffle ; its action depends on the expansion of a bar of 
fine silver, nearly eight inches long, introduced into the muffle, 
and connected with a graduated scale on the outside. 

The kind of fuel used for heating the muffle has an influence 
on the colors ; for although the muffle may consist of an iron 
box heated only on the outside, it is almost impossible to 
prevent some of the products of combustion from entering 
it. The smoke of ordinary coal is especially injurious to the 
colors, from the presence of sulphurous acid, which is also 
given off from coke. Wood has its pyroligneous acids, and 
even charcoal gives off carbonic acid. The presence of an 



Pottery and Porcelain — Ornamentation. 185 

acid is so injurious in the muffle, that the reds produced from 
green vitriol, before being used, must be thoroaghl_y washed, 
to get rid of the last traces of acid. It is also stated that a 
muffle in which cuperose has been calcined, cannot be used 
for the firing of colors. 

There is also a difficulty connected with the use of oxide 
of lead, which is required in the preparation of certain 
colors, but is injurious to the development of some others. 
Again, the fixed alkalies used in the composition of the glaze 
may react on the coloring oxides, especially at the maximum 
temperature. In this way, the oxide of chrome will produce 
yellow instead of green. The oxide of lead, the potash, and 
the soda, may not only act injuriously by contact, but by be- 
coming volatilized, they may injure every color in the muffle. 
Moreover, the oxide of tin, used in certain glazes, may im- 
part its own opacity to the colors. It is also a curious fact, 
that different kinds of kaolin are not all equally favorable to 
the development of the colors put upon the ware ; and we are 
informed, that the kaolin of Ebreuil will not allow of the 
development of any color derived from gold. 

The metals used for imparting color, hitherto referred to, 
have been in the form of oxides, etc., and used with a flux. 
The gold used in gilding porcelain is first dissolved in aqua 
regia; the acid is driven off by heat, when the gold remains 
in a state of minute division. It may also be precipitated 
by means of sulphate of iron. In this minutely divided state 
it is mixed with one-twelfth of its weight of oxide of bis- 
muth, together with a small quantity of borax and gum-water, 
and applied to the ware by means of a hair pencil. If the 
article is to have only a circular line of gold, it is placed upon 
a small table or whirler, and the artist, steadying his hand on 
a rest, applies the pencil to the article, while with the other 
hand he causes the table to revolve. The gold ornaments 
come out of the fire with a wretched dingy hue ; but the 
luster of the gold is brought out by burnishing with agate 
and blood-stone, and the gilding is cleaned with vinegar or 
white-lead. 

Other metals which, like gold, do not become readily ox- 
idized, are applied to stone-ware, and form what are called 
metallic lusters. The silver-white hue known as silver luster 
is obtained from platinum by dissolving the metal in aqua 



186 Five Black Arts. 

regia^ and pouring the saturated solution into boiling water. 
This is poured into a warm solution of sal ammoniac, when 
the metal forms a yellow precipitate, which, after having 
been washed and dried, is applied to the ware by means of a 
flat brush, and the article is then passed through the muffle- 
kiln. A sufficient body of luster may be obtained by repeating 
the operation ; and should the articles come out of the muffle 
black, friction with cotton will give the required luster. A 
platinum luster resembling that of polished steel is obtained 
by dropping a solution of equal parts of tar and sulphur in 
hot linseed-oil, known as spirit of tar, into the acid solution 
of platinum. The mixture is spread over the ware, and passed 
through the muffle as before. Gold luster is obtained by 
precipitating a solution of gold in aqua regia by means of 
ammonia : it has fulminating properties, and must therefore 
be mixed with the essential oil of turpentine while moist, and 
in this state applied to the ware. Af.er the firing, the luster 
will be brought out by friction with linen. The lustre can- 
tharide of the French, which is remarkable for its iridescence, 
is obtained from chloride of silver, partly decomposed by 
means of combustible vapors. For this purpose a mixture of 
a lead glass, oxide of bismuth, and chloride of silver, is ap- 
plied to the ware. This is then raised to a red heat in the 
muffle, when a fuliginous smoke is introduced, which effects 
the partial decomposition required. An iron luster is ob- 
tained by mixing a solution of iron or steel in hydrochloric 
acid with spirit of tar, and applying it to the ware. Silver 
and platinum lusters are usually laid upon a white ground ; 
gold and copper lusters have the best effect on colored grounds. 
The paste body for lustrous ware is usually made for the pur- 
pose, of four parts clay, four of flint, four of kaolin, and six 
of felspar. Its color is brown, but it is coated with a lead 
glaze composed of sixty parts litharge, thirty-six of felspar, 
and fifteen of flint. 



GLASS. 




ITS HISTORY AND MANUFACTURE. 








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ii> -ok^- - 'SLcS^^^tt^ 


^M r\ 



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GLASS. 

HISTORY AND MANUFACTURE. 



The general term glass is employed by chemists to denote 
all mineral substances which, on the application of heat, pass 
through a state of fusion into hard and brittle masses, and 
which, though not always transparent, exhibit a lustrous 
fracture when broken. The glass of commerce, however, to 
which our remarks are restricted, or the transparent and ar- 
tificial substance which is usually distinguished by the gen- 
eric name, is produced by the igneous fusion of siliceous 
earth with certain alkaline earths or salts, or with metallic 
oxides. 

The etymology of the word has been much disputed. It 
is derived by some from the Latin glacies, ice, its resem- 
blance to which is thought to have suggested the title. Oth- 
ers have remarked, that the common Latin designation of 
this substance is vitrum; and as the Romans applied this 
term, in common with the word glastum, to the plant which 
we call woad, they have deduced it from the latter of these, 
either because the ashes of this plant were used in the man- 
ufacture of glass, or because it exhibited something of the 
bluish color which is procured from woad. Glassum, the 
name given to amber by the ancient Gauls and Britons, has 
also been assigned as the origin of the word. But none of 
these etymons appear very satisfactory. The most plausible 
theory is that which derives the term from the Saxon verb 
glis-nian, or the German gleissen, splendere, which are prob- 
ably contractions of the Anglo-Saxon ge-lixan, to shine, to 
be bright. This view is in a great degree confirmed by the 
sense in which the term glass and its derivatives are employ- 



190 Five Black Arts. 

ed by our older writers, who frequently apply it to shining 
or glittering substances, without reference to color or trans- 
parency. 

In the most remote ages the art of blowing glass into bot- 
tles, making it into vases, coloring it to imitate precious 
stones, melting it in enormous masses to make pillars, rolling 
and polishing it into mirrors, and tinting it in parts, were all 
perfectly well known. For its origin we must look to Egypt, 
the parent of so many collateral arts. The story of the Is- 
raelites having set fire to a forest, and the heat becoming so 
intense that it made the niter and sand melt and flow along 
the mountain side, and that they afterward did artificially 
what had been the result of accident, may be set down as 
equally fabulous with the story of the pirates, who are said 
to have landed on the sea-beach, and wishing to make their 
cauldron boil, piled up some vitreous stones and placed them 
on a quantity of sea-weed and blocks of wood, causing so 
strong a heat that the stones were softened and ran down on 
the sand, which melting and mixing with the alkali became 
a diaphanous and glassy mass. The fictitious character of 
both these stories is proved by the simple fact that it requires 
the most intense furnace heat to insure the combination of 
the sand with the niter. 

(^ Under these circumstances we are justified in believing 
that glass-making had its origin at the same time with the 
baking of bricks and pottery. 'The smelting of ores, too, 
required a furnace sufficiently intense to fuse the silicates 
analogous to glass, and hence it may be safely inferred, that 
in the age when melting and working metal was known the 
art of making glass was also practiced. In the book of Job 
the most precious things are compared to wisdom, but still 
more precious are gold and glass. The Hebrews must have 
become acquainted with glass while in Egypt, and in conse- 
quence of their proximity to the Phoenicians ; and it is now 
generally behoved that these two nations had the merit of 
originating and estabhshing its manufacture. The Athenian 
embassadors, in order to give an idea of the magnificence 
displayed at the court of the great King of Persia, said that 
they drank in cups of glass and gold. Some writers afiirm 
that the Egyptians in some instances sealed up their dead in 
a coating of glass, and glass-houses are said not to have been 



1 



Glass — History. 191 

uncommon in that wonderful country. Some authors ascribe, 
■with very phiusible reason, the discovery of glass-making to 
the priests of Vulcan at Thebes and Memphis, the greatest 
chemists in the ancient world. The Egyptians are also 
known to have made enamels of divers colors which they ap- 
plied on pottery, magnificent specimens of which are still ex- 
tant, and are called Egyptian porcelain. These are chiefly 
covered with beautiful blue or green, and groups of flowers 
or designs are traced in black. Glass beads and other orna- 
ments made of that substance, skillfully manufactured and 
beautifully colored, have been found adorning mummies, 
which are known to be upward of three thousand years old. 
It is certain that Tyre, Sidon, and Alexandria, were long 
celebrated for their glass, and furnished the greater propor- 
tion of that used at Rome. Under the Roman Empire the 
Egyptians still preserved their superiority in the art of glass- 
making, and it is said that Aurelian caused them to pay 
their tribute in that manufacture. Adrian mentions that he 
had received drinking-glasses of various colors from a priest 
of a famous temple in Egypt, and gives instructions that 
they are not to be used but on the greatest occasions, and on 
the most solemn feast days. To these places the art was 
exclusively confined for some centuries, and was an article 
of luxury, being chiefly in the form of urns or drinking-cups 
of the most elaborate workmanship, and exquisitely embel- 
lished with raised, chased, or ornamented figures. The Bar- 
berini or Portland Vase, composed of deep blue glass, with 
figures of a delicate white opaque substance raised in relief, 
is a splendid specimen, and was found in the tomb of Alex- 
ander Severus, who died a.d. 285. 

The art of glass- making seems to have been introduced 
into Italy by the Romans after their conquests in Asia in the 
time of Cicero, and the first glass works there were said to 
have been near the Flaminian Circus. It is highly probable 
that these workmen were imported from Egypt. The use of 
glass seems rapidly to have increased, and to have become 
very common, for we find an emperor in the third century of 
the Christian era saying, that he was disgusted with so low 
and vulgar an object as glass, and that he would only drink 
from vessels of gold. By this time the manufacture of glass 
was so considerable that an impost was laid on it, and it was 



192 Five Black Arts. 

extensivel^y employed in the decorations of buildings, while in 
glass mosaics were combined the most brilliant colors. 

From the circumstance of colored glass beads and amulets 
having been found among Druidical remains in England, it 
has been argued by Pennant and others, that the art of 
making glass was known in Britain before its invasion by the 
B-omans. It can hardly, however, be believed that a people 
who had made very trifling advances in civilization, and who, 
it is known, were entirely unacquainted with any other art, 
should be found not only conversant with the manufacture of 
glass, a complicated and highly ingenious process, but should 
excel in it ; for the beads and amulets spoken of are of ex- 
quisite workmanship, and beautifully colored in imitation of 
the rarest and most precious stones. There seems little 
doubt, therefore, that the ancient Britons procured these in 
the course of traffic with the Syrians, who visited the island, 
as we do those in the South Seas, to drive a trade with their 
savage inhabitants in toys and trinkets, giving them these in 
exchange for skins or other natural productions. By what- 
ever means, however, these ornaments came into Britain, it 
is certain that they were in extensive use, though principally 
for religious purposes, long prior to the Roman invasion, as 
they are found in barrows or tumuli of a much older date. 
One at Stonehenge, in particular, on being opened, was found 
to be filled with them. 

Glain Neidyr, or Druidical glass rings, generally about half 
as wide as our finger rings, but much thicker, have frequently 
been found. The vulgar superstition regarding these was, 
that they were produced by snakes joining their heads to- 
gether and hissing, when a kind of bubble like a ring was 
formed round the head of them, which the others, continu- 
ing to hiss, blew on till it came off" at the tail, when it imme- 
diately hardened into a glass ring. Success was thought to 
attend any one who was fortunate enough to find one of those 
snake-stones. They were evidently beads of glass employed 
by the Druids, under the name of charms, to deceive the vul- 
gar. They are usually of a green color, but some of them 
are blue, and others variegated with wavy streaks of blue, 
red, and white. 

Glass utensils have been found in Herculaneum, which city 
was destroyed by an eruption of Mount Vesuvius in the reign 



Glass — History. 193 

of Titus (a.d. 79). A plate of glass also found there has oc- 
casionefl much speculation as to its uses. Similar plates, to 
which Pliny gives the name of vitrece camerce, seem to have 
been employed, in a manner not very well understood by us, 
as paneling for their rooms. It is disputed whether or not 
glass was used in Ilerculaneum for windows. 

Dion Cassius and Petronius Arbiter concur in their account 
of the discovery of malleable or ductile glass by a celebrated 
Roman architect, whose success in the restoration to its posi- 
tion of a portico which leaned to one side had roused the envy 
and jealousy of Tiberius, and occasioned his banishment from 
Rome. Thinking that his discovery would disarm the em- 
peror's wrath, the artist appeared before him bearing a glass 
vessel, which he dashed upon the ground, Nutwithstan(iing 
the violence of the blow, it was merely dimpled as if it had 
been brass. Taking a hammer from his breast, he then beat 
it out into its original shape ; but instead of giving him the 
reward which he had expected, the emperor ordered the un- 
fortunate artisan to be beheaded, remarking, that if his dis- 
covery were known, gohi would soon be held of as little value 
as common clay. This is probably another version of the story 
told by Pliny, of an artificer who made the same discovery, 
and whose workshop was demolished by those who had an in- 
terest in preventing the introduction of an article which would 
lower the value of gold, silver, and brass. Although it might 
not be justifiable to give unqualified disbelief to these stories, 
yet the knowledge we at present possess would restrict the 
possibility of such a discovery within the narrowest limits. 
The union of the properties of malleability and vitrification 
seems to be incompatible. Some metallic substances, by the 
application of intense heat, are reduced to the state of glass, 
but at the same time lose their malleability ; which fact would 
seem to imply that it is impossible to communicate the latter 
property to glass. The extraordinary stories above mentioned 
have, however, been rationally enough explained by modern 
chemists. It has been observed by Kunckel, that a cumposi- 
tion having a glossy appearance, and sufficiently pliant to be 
wrought by the hammer, may be formed : and by Neumann, 
that, in the fusion of muriate of silver, a kind of glass is 
formed, which may be shaped or beaten into different figures, 
and may be pronounced iu some degree ductile. Blaucourt, 

13 



194 Five Black Arts. 

in his U Art de la Verrerie, mentions an artist who presented 
a bust of ductile glass to Cardinal Richelieu, minister of Louis 
XIII. But he does not seem to have been more fortunate than 
his predecessors ; for he was doomed to imprisonment for life, 
for " the politic reasons," as Blancourt with much simplicity 
observes (we quote from the translation published in 1699), 
" which, it is believed, the cardinal entertained from the con- 
sideration of the consequences of that secret," which no doubt 
led him to fear lest the established interests of French glass 
manufacturers might be injured by the discovery. From ex- 
pressions used by Blancourt in other parts of his work, we 
think, that by malleable glass, such as was produced by this 
artist, he understood some composition similar to those which 
Kunckel and Neumann discovered, and was not very exact 
in limiting the term to that vitreous sabstance which we now 
generally understand when we speak of glass. 

The precise period at which the making of window-glass 
came into practice is not now certainly known. The Roman 
windows were filled with a semi-transparent substance called 
lapis specularis, a fossil of the class of mica which readily 
splits into thin smooth laminge or plates. This substance is 
found in masses of ten or twelve inches in breadth, and three 
in thickness; and, when sliced, very much resembles horn, 
instead of which it is to this day often employed by lantern- 
makers. The Romans were chiefly supplied with this article 
from the island of Cyprus, where it abounds. So good a 
substitute for glass is it said to have been, that, besides being 
employed for the admission of light into the Roman houses, 
it was also used in the construction of hot-houses, for raising 
and protecting delicate plants ; so that, by using it, the Em- 
peror Tiberius had cucumbers at his table throughout the 
whole year. It is still much employed in Russia instead of 
glass for windows. 

There is no positive mention of the use of glass for windows 
before the time of Lactantius, at the close of the third cen- 
tury. But the passage in that writer which records the fact 
(De Opif. Dei, cap. 8), also shows that the lapis specularis 
still retained its place. Glass windows are distinctly men- 
tioned by St. Jerome, as being in use in his time (a.d. 422). 
After this period we meet with frequent mention of them. 
Joannes Phillipinus (a.d. 630) states that glass was fastened 
into the windows with plaster. 



Glass — History. 195 

The Venerable Bede asserts that glass whiriows were first 
introduced into England in the year 674, bj the Abbot Bene- 
dict, who brought over artificers skilled in the art of making 
window-glass, to glaze the church and monastery of Wear- 
mouth. The use of window-glass, however, was then, and 
for many centuries afterward, confined entirely to buildings 
appropriated to religious purposes ; but in the fourteenth cen- 
tury it was so much in demand, though still confined to sacred 
edifices and ornamental purposes, that glazing had become a 
regular trade. Tiiis appears from a contract entered into by 
the church authorities of York Cathedral in 1338 with a 
glazier, to glaze the west windows of that structure ; a piece 
of work which he undertook to perform at the rate of sixpence 
per foot for white glass, and one shilling per foot for colored. 
Glass windows, however, did not become common in England 
till the close of the twelfth century. Until this period they 
were rarely to be found in private houses, and were deemed 
a great luxury, and a token of great magnificence. The 
windows of the houses were till then filled with oiled paper, 
or wooden lattices. In cathedrals, these and sheets of linen 
supplied the place of glass till the eighth century ; in meaner 
edifices lattices continued in use till the eighteenth. 

The glass of the Venetians was superior to any made else- 
where, and for many years commanded the market of nearly 
all Europe. Their most extensive glass-works were establish- 
ed at Murano, a small village in the neighborhood of Venice ; 
but the produce was always recognized by the name of Vene- 
tian glass. Baron von Lowhen, in his Analysis of Nobility 
in its Origin, states that, " so useful were the glass-makers 
at one period in Venice, and so great the revenue accruing 
to the republic from their manufacture, that, to encourage the 
m£n engaged in it to remain in Murano, the senate made 
them all burgesses of Venice, and allowed nobles to marry 
their daughters ; whereas, if a nobleman marries the daugh- 
ter of any other tradesman, the issue were not reputed noble." 

The skill of the Venetians in glass-making was especially 
remarkable in the excellence of their mirrors. Beckman, who 
has minutely investigated the subject, is of opinion that the 
manufacture of glass mirrors certainly was attempted, but 
not with complete success, in Sidon, at a very early period ; 
but that they fell into disuse, and were almost forgotten until 



196 Five Black Arts. 

the thirteenth century. Previously to this period, plates of 
polished metal were used at the toilet ; and in the rudeness 
of the first ideas which suggested the substitution of glass, 
the plates were made of a deep black color to imitate them. 
Black foil even was laid behind them to increase their opacity. 
The metal mirrors, however, remained in use long after the 
introduction of their fragile rivals, but at length they wholly 
disappeared ; a result effected chiefly by the skill of the Vene- 
tians, who improved their manufacture to such a degree that 
they speedily acquired a celebrity which secured an immense 
sale for them througliout all Europe. 

From Italy the art of glass-making found its way into 
France, where an attempt was made, in the year 1634, to ri- 
val the Venetians in the manufacture of mirrors. The first 
essay was unsuccessful ; but another, made in 1665, under 
the patronage of the celebrated Colbert, in which French 
workmen who had acquired a knowledge of the art at Mu- 
rano were employed, had better fortune. But a few years 
afterward, this establishment, which was situated in the vil- 
lage of Tourlaville, near Cherbourg ia Lower Normandy, 
was also threatened with ruin by a discovery or rather im- 
provement in the art of glass-making, effected by one Abra- 
ham Thevart. This improvement consisted in casting plates 
of much larger dimensions than it had hitherto been deemed 
possible to do. Thevart's first plates were cast at Pari?, and 
astonished every artist by their magnitude. They were eighty- 
four inches long and fifty inches wide, whereas none previous- 
ly made exceeded forty-five or fifty inches in length. The- 
vart was bound by his patent to make all his plates at least 
sixty inches in length and forty in breadth. In 1695 the two 
companies, Thevart's and that at Tourlaville, united their in- 
terest, but were so unsuccessful, that, in 1701, they were un- 
able to pay their debts, and were in consequence compelled 
to discharge most of the workmen, and abandon several of 
their furnaces. Next year, however, a company was formed 
under the management of Antoine d'Agincourt, who re-en- 
gaged the discharged workmen ; and the works realized con- 
sidera'ile profits to the proprietors, a circumstance which is 
attributed wholly to the prudent management of D'Agincourt. 

Early in the fourteenth century the French government 
made a concession in favor of glass-making, by decreeing 



Glass — History. 197 

that not only should no derogation from nobility follow the 
practice of the art, but that none save gentlemen, ur tlie sons 
of noblemen, should venture to engage in any of its branches, 
even as working artisans. This limitation was accompatiied 
by a grant of a royal charter of incorporation, conveying 
important privileges, under which the occupation became even- 
tually a source of great wealth to several families of distinc- 
tion. 

It has been said that the manufacturing of window-glass 
was first introduced into England in the year 1557. But a 
contract, quoted by Horace Walpole in his Anecdotes of 
Painting, proves that this article was made in England up- 
ward of a century before that period. This curious docu- 
ment is dated in 1439, and appears to be a contract between 
the Countess of Warwick and John Prudde of Westminster, 
glazier, whom she employed, with other tradesmen, to erect 
and embellish a magnificent tomb for the earl, her husband. 
John Prudde is thei'eby bound to use " no glass of England, 
but glass from beyond seas ;" a stipulation which, besides show- 
ing that the art of making window-glass was known and prac- 
ticed in England in the fifteenth century, seems also to indi- 
cate that it was inferior to what could be obtained from 
abroad. The finer sort of window-glass was made at Crutch- 
ed Friars, London, in 1557. In the year 1535, Sir Robert 
Maxwell introduced the use of coal fuel instead of wood, and 
procured workmen from Venice ; but many years elapsed 
before the English manufactories equaled the Venetians and 
French in the quality of these articles. The first flint-glass 
made in England was manufactured at the Savoy House, in 
the Strand ; and the first plate-glass for looking-glasses, coach 
windows, and similar purposes, was made at Lambeth, by Ve- 
netian workmen, brought over in 1670, by the Duke of Buck- 
ingham. From that period the English glass manufactories, 
aided by the liberal bounties granted them in cash upon glass 
sold for export, became powerful and successful rivals of the 
Venetians and French manufactories. The bounty on glass 
exported, which the government paid to the manufacturer, was 
not derived from any tax by impost, or excise, previously 
laid ; for all such were returned to the manufacturer together 
with the bounty, thereby lessening the actual cost of the ar- 
ticle from 25 to 50 per cent., and enabling the English ex- 



198 Five Black Arts. 

porter to compete successfully in foreign markets. This boun- 
ty provision was annulled during the premiership of Sir 
Robert Peel, together with all the excise duty on home con- 
sumption. 

The art of glass-making was introduced into Scotland in 
the reign of James VI. An exclusive right to manufacture 
it within the kingdom, for the space of thirty-one years, was 
granted by that monarch to Lord George Hay, in the year 
1610. This right his lordship transferred in 1627, for a con- 
siderable sum, to Thomas Robinson, merchant- tailor in Lon- 
don, who again disposed of it for 250/., to Sir Robert Man- 
sell, vice-admiral of England. The first manufactory of glass 
in Scotland, an extremely rude one, was established at We- 
myss in Fife. Regular works were afterward commenced 
at Prestonpans, Leith, and Dumbarton. Crown-glass is now 
manufactured at Warrington, St. Helens, Eccleston, Old 
Swan, and Newton, Lancashire; at Birmingham, Hunslet 
near Leeds, and Bristol. It is also manufactured of excel- 
lent quality on the Tyne and Wear. Great improvements 
have recently been made in the manufacture of crown-glass; 
and we believe this article, as made in England, is superior 
in qua lity to that of any other nation. 

The manufacture of glass was introduced into the Ameri- 
can States in llbO by Robert Hewes, a citizen of Boston, 
who erected a factory in the then forest of New Hampshire. 
The chief aim of Mr. Hewes was to supply window-glass, 
but he did not succeed. Another attempt was made in 1800, 
when a factory was built in Boston for making crown window- 
glass ; but this was unsuccessful, till a German named Link, 
in 1803, took charge of the works, find the State of Mas- 
sachusetts agreed to pay the proprietors a bounty on every ta- 
ble of window-glass they made ; after which the manufacture 
was carried on successfully, the glass steadily improving in 
quality, and becoming famed through all the States as Boston 
window-glass. The same company, in the year 1822, erected 
new and more extensive works at Boston. The mystery at- 
tached to the art of glass-making followed it into America. 
;The glass-blower was considered a magician, and myi-iads 
visited the newly-erected works, looking on the man who 
could transmute earthy and opaque matter into a transparent 
and brilliant sub«5tance, as an alchemist who could transmute 
base metal into gold. 



Glass — History. 199 

Since the manufacture of flint-glass was introduced into 
the Eastern States there have been above furty companies 
formed from time to time, nearly thirty of which have proved 
failures. There are now ten in operation, two of which are 
at East Cambridge, three at South Boston, one at Sandwich, 
three near New York City, and one at Philadelphia. 48,000 
tons of coal, ()600 tons of silex, 2600 tons ash, niter, etc., 
and 3800 tons of lead are annually consumed in the manu- 
facture of flint-glass. 

In the vicinity of Pittsburg, in the "Western States, are 
nine manufactories of flint-glass and ten of window-glass, 
and in the river towns are fifteen window-glass factories. 

There is good reason for supposing that the art of col- 
oring glass is coeval with the art of glass-making itself. 
It is certain that the art was known in Egypt at least 3000 
years ago. We have already mentioned the beautiful imita- 
tions of precious stones, found adorning mummies which are 
known to have existed for that time. We meet with frequent 
mention of specimens of Eastern workmanship of corasum- 
mate beauty, upon which great value was placed. The 
works of Caylus and Winkelmann furnish some striking instan- 
ces of ancient skill in the formation of pictures by means of 
delicate glass fibers of various hues, which, after being fitted 
together with the utmost nicety, were conglutinated by fu- 
sion into a solid mass. The art of combining the various 
colors so as to produce pictures, such as is now practiced, is 
comparatively of recent date. The earliest specimens of this 
kind of work discover a fictitious joining of different pieces 
of glass, differently tinged, and so arranged as, by a species 
of mosaic work, to produce the figure or figures wanted. 
The various pieces are held together generally by a vein of 
lead, run upon the back of the picture, precisely at their 
junction. 

It has already been stated that the Romans combined the 
most brilliant colors in their mosaics ; and there can be little 
doubt that the mosaics gave the first idea of painted or stain- 
ed glass for windows in the early Christain churches. In all 
the early specimens of Norman glass, similar coloring and de- 
sign are to be traced. Starting from the fourth century, 
there is frequent mention of colored glass windows by 
Greek and Latin authors. St. John Chrysostom and St. 



200 Five Black Arts. 

Jerome talk of " windows of divers colors ;" and Lactantius 
says "• that the soul perceives objects through our bodily eyes 
as throuu;h windows garnished with trans[iarent glass." The 
early basilicas were all adorned with colored glass, and the 
early Cbristain poets sung in ecvstasies of the effect produced 
by the windows at sunrise. In the sixth century, Prudetia, 
speaking of one of these structures, says : — "The magnifi- 
cence of this temple is truly regal. The pious prince who 
consecrated it has caused the vaults to be painted at great 
expense, and has clothed it with golden walls, so that the 
light of day may repeat the fire of the morning. In the win- 
dows is placed glass of various colors, which shine like mead- 
ows decked in the flowers of spring." An inscription on St* 
Agnese states, that that basilica, rebuilt by the Emperor 
Ilonorius, was decorated with glass, which produced the 
most magnificent effect. In the sixth century, Sancta Sophia, 
at Constantinople, also received painted windows, which Paul 
the Silent praises highly. Procopius says, that day seemed 
to be born under the vaults of the temple ; and after such 
glowing description it cannot be doubted that the glass was 
stained, not colorless. 

The use of colored glass, however, was not confined to 
Greece and Italy. It rapidly appeared in Gaul. Gregory 
of Tours, in the sixth century, also tells us that the church 
of St. Julien de Brionde, in that town, had colored glass 
windows; and the Bishop of Poictiers, describing Notre-Dame 
of Paris, admired the effect produced by the light falling up- 
on the vaults and walls after passing through the painted 
glass, and compares it to the first tints of the morning sun. 

In England, St. Wilfred, who lived early in the eighth 
century, is said to have been the first to introduce painted 
glass windows, and for that purpose had workmen brought 
from France or [taly. 

The first painted glass executed in England was in the 
time of King John ; previously to this, all stained or painted 
glass was imported from Italy. The next notice of it occurs 
in the reign of Henry III. The treasurer of that monarch 
orders that there be painted, on three glass windows in the 
chapel of St. John, a little Virgin Mary holding the child, 
and the Trinity, and St. John the Apostle. Some time after, 



Glass — History. 201 

he issues another mandate for two painted windows in 
the hall. 

Even at this early period, however, Englnnd boasted of 
eminent native artists in glass painting, amongst the first of 
whom was John Thornton, glazier of Coventry. This per- 
son was employed, in the time of Henry IV"., by the dean 
and chapter of York cathedral, to paint the eastern window 
of that splendid edifice ; and for the beautiful and masterly 
■workmanship which he exhibited in this specimen of his skill, 
he received four shillings per week of regular wages. He 
was bound to finish the work in less than three years, and to 
receive, over and above the weekly allowance, one hundred 
shillings for each year; and if the work was done to the sat- 
isfaction of his employers, he was to receive, on its comple- 
tion, a further sura of 10^. 

From this period downward there have been many skillful 
native artists, although the Reformation greatly impeded 
the progress of the art, by banishing the ungodly ostentation 
of ornamented windows from churches; indeed, so serious 
■was this interruption, that the art had nearly altogether dis- 
appeared in the time of Elizabeth. Amongst the most eminent 
glass painters who first appeared upon the revival of the art, 
■were Isaac Oliver, born in 1616, and William Price, who 
lived about the close of the seventeenth century. This ar- 
tist was succeeded by a person at Birmingham, who, in 1757, 
fitted up a window for Lord Lyttleton, in the church of 
Hagley. To him succeeded one Pecket of York, who at- 
tained considerable notoriety, but who was entirely ignorant 
of the true princi files of the art. 

During all tliis time, however, and indeed until a compara- 
tively recent date, painted glass was regarded as too costly and 
too magnificent an article to be otherwise employed than in 
decorating religious edifices or the palaces of nobles ; and 
even in the the latter case it was but sparingly used. Mod- 
ern improvement has placed this beautiful ornament within 
the reach of very ordinary circumstances ; and the art of 
staining glass is now practiced with great success, and is ex- 
tensively used in decorating our domestic as well as our palatial 
and ecclesiastical architecture. 

The colors of modern artists, we venture to allege, notwith- 
standing what is often urged to the contrary, equal in variety 



202 Five Black Arts. 

and rlcliness those of the ancients, and, with the superior 
knowledge which we now possess of the principles of drawing, 
and of bringing several colors together on a single sheet, en- 
couragement alone is wanting to attract artists of talent and 
inventive genius to the pursuit of the art, and to carry it. to a 
greater height of excellence than it has ever reached in the 
hands of their predecessors. 

' MANUFACTURE OF CROWN-GLASS. 

In order to secure success to his operations, the glass 
manufacturer must bestow the utmost care upon the erection 
of his furnaces. They must be well and substantially built, 
of the best materials, of the most approved construction, and 
under the direction of a builder of tried skill and extensive 
experience. A false economy in these respects cannot fail 
of leading to the most ruinous results. 

Crown-glass is the best kind of glass now employed in the 
glazing of windows, and is so called to distinguish it from the 
common, broad, or spread glass, which was in use before the 
introduction of crown-glass, but which, on account of its in- 
ferior quality, is now rarely used. In the manufacture of 
crown-glass the following furnaces and arches are required, 
viz., calcar arch, main furnace, bottoming hole, flashing furn- 
ace, nose hole, and annealing kiln. 

A Calcar Arch for burning frit is a common reverberatory 
furnace, and is about ten feet long, seven feet wide, and two 
feet high. The crown aad sides are built of fire- brick, and 
the other parts of common brick. The bottom should be care- 
fully joined and cemented, as the salt is apt to ooze through it. 

The Main or Glasts-making Furnace is an oblong, built 
in the center of a brick cone, large enough to contain within, 
it two or three pots at each side of the grate-room, which is 
either divided, or runs the whole length of the furnace, as 
the manufacturer likes. 

The arch is of an elliptic form. A barrel arch, that is, 
an arch shaped like the half of a barrel cut longwise through 
the center, is sometimes used; Bat this soon gives way when 
used in the manufacture of crown-glass, although it does very 
well in the clay furnace for bottle-houses. 

The best stone in Endand for buildin«; furnaces is fire-stone 



Glass — Crown. 203 

from Coxgreen, in the neighborhood of Newcastle. Its qual- 
ity is a close {/ram, and it contains a greater quantity of talc 
than the common fire-stone, which seems to be the cliief reason 
of its resisting the fire better. The great danger in building 
furnaces is, lest the cement at the top should give way with 
the excessive heat, and by dropping into the pots, spoil the 
metal. The top should therefore be built with stones only, 
as loose as they can hold together after the centers are re- 
moved, and without any cement whatever. The stones ex- 
pand and come quite close together when annealing ; an op- 
eration which takes Irom eight to fourteen days at most. There 
is thus less risk of any thing dropping from the roof of the 
furnace. « 

The inside of the furnace is built either of Stourbridge 
fire-clay annealed, or the Newcastle fire-stone, to the thick- 
ness of sixteen inches. The outside is built of common brick 
about nine inches in thickness. 

The furnace is thrown over an ash-pit, or cave as it is 
called, which admits the atmospheric air, and promotes the 
combustion of the furnace. This cave is built of stone until 
it comes beneath the grate-room, when it is formed of fire- 
brick. The abutments are useful for binding and keeping 
the furnace together, and are built of masonry. The furnaces 
are stoutly clasped with iron all round, to keep them tight. 
In four-pot furnaces this is unnecessary, provided there be 
four good abutments. 

Bottoming Hole. The interior is of common fire-brick, 
the mouth either of common fire-brick or Stourbridge clay, 
and the outside entirely of common brick. 

Flashing Furnace. The outside is built of common brick, 
the inside of fire-brick, and the mouth or nose of Stourbridge 
fire-clay. 

iVose Hole. This is a small aperture off the flashing furn- 
ace, and of the same materials. 

Annealing Kiln. It is built of common brick, except 
around the grate-room, where fire-brick is used. 

The materials of which crown-glass is usually composed are 
kelp and fine white sand. Pearl ashes, or certain other al- 
kalies, sometimes supply the place of the former of these 
substances. The quality of kelp is extremely various. That 
from Orkney is superior to what is made in Ireland, the He- 



204 Five Black Arts. 

briles, or the lower parts of Scotland. It is found to con- 
tain less alkali, and to produce glass of a better color.* For 
the glass-maker's purposes the kelp of the Orkneys is decid- 
edly the best. It is freer from sulphur than the others, the 
presence of which makes the glass green, crude, and fretful. 
The following is the course pursued in the preparation of kelp. 
The fuci are cut from the rocks in the months of May, June, 
and July. They are then brought to the shore, and, after 
being spread out and dried, are thrown into a pit lined with 
stones, in which a large fire has been previously kindled. On 
this fire the weed is heaped from time to titne, until a large 
mass is accumulated, and the whole is reduced to a state of 
fusion. It is ther^ell mixed and leveled, and allowed to cool. 
When sufficiently cold, it is taken from the pit, and broken 
into portable masses, for the convenience of ti'ansportation. 
To prevent the dissipation of the alkali, a thing very apt to oc- 
cur, the greatest care is necessary in every [larl of this process ; 
in the gathering and drying, as well as in the burning of the 
fuci ; in the treatment of the mass whilst in a state of fusion ; 
and in its exposure to the atmosphere during these operations. 
Kelp burners are but too frequently guilty of carelessness in 
this respect. In some places they burn the fuci in pits which 
are not lined with stones, and, of consequence, sand and 
earthy substances mingle with the fused mass.f It is no 
uncommon thing for the makers to increase the weight of 
kelp intentionally, foolishly thinking to procure a higher price 
for it by so doing. Such adulteration is, however, at once 
detected by the kelp merchant, and the article, which might 
otherwise have brought a good price, is reduced to less than 
a third of its value. The inferiority of the Lowland kelp to 

*Some eminent chemists assert tliat, although the usual quantity of kelp ■ 
be added in the manufacture of glass, the weight of the jilass produced is 
nothing more than the original weight of the sand. But this is not the case 
with the Orkney kelp, for though it has less allcali, it contains more insolu- 
ble matter than the VVest Highland kelp, and ot course produces a larger 
quantity of glass. The West Highland yields glass uf very inferior color 
to that procured by tlie use of Orkney kelp. 

t The best mode of preparing kelp, as invented by Colonel FuUarton, is 
by burning it in a reverberatory furnace, and throwing it down in the form of 
cakes, in the same manner as frit, which we shall afterward have occasion 
to djscrib ;. When so prepared, it is more fit fo^- th;- glass manufacturer, 
being free of extraiieoas matter. This method is now employed by exten- 
sive makers of kelp in Ireland. 



Glass — Crown. 205 

that of Orkney and the Hehrides, may with safety be attrib- 
uted as much to to this practice as to the inferiority of the 
fuci. Some idea, but at best a very uncertain one, of the 
quality of kelp may be formed hj the examination of its ex- 
ternal appearance. A chemical analysis of its properties 
can alone give security to the manufacturer. In preparing 
it for the manufacture of glass, it is first broken into 
small pieces, either by the hand or by a machine called a 
stamper. It is then put into a mill and ground into a fine 
powder, stones and all other extraneous matter being picked 
out. Tlie powder is afterward passed through brass wire sieves. 
With regard to the other component part of window glass, 
namely, sand, that of the best description is procured from 
Lynn Regis, in Norfolk. That procured from Alum Bay, on 
the Western coast of the Isle of Wight, is also of excellent 
quality. The superiority of this sand arises from the circum- 
stance of its containing a greater quantity of minute trans- 
parent crystals than is found in the sand of any other place 
in the country. In preparing the sand, it is usually washed 
in a large vat with boiling or cold water, until the water runs 
off quite clear. The sand is then put into a calcining arch, 
where it is subjected to a strong heat fir twenty-four hours. 
During this time it is kept red hot, and immediately on being 
taken out is plunged into pure cold water. This has the effect 
of dividing the particles of sand, and making it unite more 
readily with the alkali during the process of calcining. Some 
use niter during this process, which consumes anv sulphureous 
matter that may be present, or extraneous substances of an 
animal or vegetable nature, and reduces them to an earth not 
injurious to glass. When this operation is completed, it is 
removed into the mixing room, where the proportions of ma- 
terial are adjusted and mingled together, previously to their 
he'mg fritted or calcined. Here the mateiials, the sand and 
the kelp powder, are carefully proportioned, generally in the 
degree of eleven of kelp to seven of sand, some manufacturers 
using eleven to ei^ht, which are mixed up according to the 
judgment of the mixer. The majority of glass manufacturers 
are now giving u[) the use of kelp. Within the last few years the 
improvements in the manufacture of carbonate of soda have 
been very great, while it has also fallen considerably in price. 
Instead, therefore, of using such an impure alkali as kelp with 



206 Five Black Arts. 

sand, carbonate of soda with sand and lime is employed, which 
gives glass of as good a color as plate, and is attended with 
many other advantages which the other materials do not pos- 
sess. Manufactiirers, instead of kelp, purchase sulphur, and 
with it make sulphuric acid. With sulphuric acid and muri- 
ate of soda they make sulphate of soda, to which lime, coal, 
etc. are added, and thus produce carbonate of soda, which, 
with sand and lime, is made into glass. The operations for 
preparing these materials are carried on within their own 
premises by several extensive glass manufacturers. The fol- 
lowing mixture has been found to produce an excellent quality 
of glass : 3 cwts. Lynn sand ; 2J ditto carbonate of soda ; 
14 lbs. niter ; 14 ditto lime ; 7 ditto charcoal ; one-fourth of 
the above weight of cullet. 

This mixture will make a very excellent glass when the 
furnace is kept at a proper heat. The proportions must, of 
course, be regulated in some degree by the heat which the 
furnace attains. The addition of any other ingredient will in- 
jure the quality and color of the glass. It may be either fritted 
or not before being put into the pots. The use of this mix- 
ture saves coals, time, and wages, as the founding occupies 
from sixteen to twenty hours only, whilst in other cases the 
time occupied by this process is from twenty to twenty-four 
hours. It can also be blown into a thinner and finer substance, 
and is thus liable to a less duty. When the sand and kelp 
are thoroughly mixed, the compost is put into a calcining arch 
or reverberatory furnace, where it is subjected to a heat so 
strong as to reduce it to a semi-fluid state. Whilst in this 
state, it is stirred without intermission, to prevent the forma- 
tion of knots containing more sand than the rest of the batch, 
an effect resulting from the dissipation of the alkali by excess 
of heat. The process of calcining requires more or less time 
according to the varying properties of the ingredients com- 
posing the batch. From three to four hours is the time usu- 
ally occupied by each batch. The frit, as the substance is 
now called, is taken from the furnace, spread upon a plate of 
iron whilst yet hot, and, before it becomes quite cold, divided 
into large cakes. In the opinion of many, it cannot be too 
old for use ; as when new the glass made from it is full of 
what are called seeds. It is commonly kept about six months 



Glass — Ckown". 20T 

by opulent manufacturers. The last operation consists in 
throwing the frit into the melting-pots. 

To prevent stones or clay from the furnace falling into the 
pot, those used in making flint-glass are always covered in on 
the top ; and the same thing has been tried in crown pots, 
made with two openings, one in the front and one in the back, 
the back one to be plugged up when beginning to work from 
the front of the pot. This method succeeded very well, but 
was abandoned from the length of time it required ; a cir- 
cumstance which more than counterbalanced its advantages. 

These pots or crucibles are made of the finest clay. Great 
care is requisite in the selection, and in cleansing it from ex- 
traneous particles, the presence of which, even in the small- 
est degree, will injure the pot. A fine powder procured by 
grinding old crucibles is generally mixed, in a proportion sel- 
dom larger than a fourth, with what is termed the virgin clay. 
This mixture dries more rapidly, contracts less while drying, 
and presents a firmer resistance to the action of the fire and 
alkali used in the composition of glass than the mere unmixed 
clay. These ingredients having been mixed, they are wrought 
into a paste in a large trough, and carried to the pot loft, 
covered in such a way as to exclude dust and other minute 
particles. Here a workman kneads this paste by tramping 
it with his naked feet, turning it from time to time until it 
becomes as tough as putty. It is then made into roils, and 
wrought, layer upon layer, into a solid and compact body, 
every care being taken to keep it free of vacuities, as latent 
air would, by its expansion in the furnace, cause an immedi- 
ate rupture of the pots. 

After pots are made, very great care is necessary to bring 
them to the proper state of dryness before taking them to the 
annealing or pot arch. In drying they commonly shrink 
about two inches in the circumference. When pots are made 
during summer, the natural temperature is sufficient. In 
winter they are kept in a temperature of from fifty to fifty- 
five degrees Fahrenheit. They remain in the room where 
they are made for a period varying from nine to twelve 
months. Being afterward removed to another apartment, 
where the heat is from eighty to ninety degrees Fahrenheit, 
they are kept there for about four weeks. They are then re- 
moved for four or five days, more or less, according to their 



208 Five Black Arts. 

previous state of dryness, to the annealing arch, which is 
gradually and cautiously heated up till it reaches the temper- 
ature of the working furnace, whither, after being sufficient- 
ly annealed, they are carried as quickly as possible. Pots 
last upon an average from eight to ten weeks Their value 
is usually estimated at 8^. or 10/. each. 

To the frit thrown into these pots there is added a propor- 
tion, about an eighth, of cuUet or broken crown-glass. After 
this has been done, the furnace is raised to the highest possi- 
ble degree of heat. The pots are filled every third hour or 
so, according as the frit melts, till they are completely full. 
The intensity of the heat is then increased, if possible, till the 
metal, as it is now called, is reduced to fine liquid glass, which 
is then ready for the operations of the workman.* From twen- 
ty-four to thirty hours in all are required for this process, 
which is called founding. f 

The furnace is slackened for about two hours, and the 
metal being now in a workable state, the first operator who ap- 
proaches the furnace is called the skimmer^ who skims off 
all extraneous substances from the metal. Next follows the 
gatherer^ who is provided with an iron pipe or tube, six or 
seven feet in length. (See Fig. 1.) 

Having previously heated that end of the tube which takes 
up the glass, he dips it into the pot of metal ; and by turn- 
ing it gently round, gathers about one and a half pound of 
liquid glass on the end of it. Having allowed this to cool 
for a little, he again dips it into the pot, and gathers an ad- 
ditional quantity, of from two and a half to three pounds. 
This is also permitted to cool as before, when the operation 
of dipping is again repeated, and a sufficient quantity of met- 
al, from nine to ten pounds weight, is gathered, to form 
what is technically termed a table or sheet of glass. The rod, 
thus loaded, is held for a few seconds in a perpendicular 
position, that the metal may distribute itself equally on all 
sides, and that it may, by its own weight, be lengthened out 
beyond the rod. The operator then moulds the metal into 
a regular form, by rolling it on a smooth iron plate, called 

* The sandiver or glass gall is removed while the furnace is at its extreme 
degree of heat. 

t A pitce of wood about eleven inches long by seven broad, with a hole 
three iuchi s by one inch, forms an excellent protection to the eyes from the 
heat to which they are exposed when examining the metal in the pots. 



GLASS. ] 



[ Platb 1. 



Fio h 




'-^^^. 




Glass — Crown. 209 

the " marver," a term corrupted from the French word 
marhre. 

He then blows strongly through the tube, when his breath 
penetrating the red-hot mass of glass, causes it to swell out 
into a hollow pear-shaped vessel. (See Fig. 2.) 

The tube with the elongated sphere of glass at the end of 
it is then handed to the blozcer, who heats it a second and 
third time at the furnace, pressing the end, between each blow- 
ing, against the bullion bar, so called from the part thus press- 
ed forming the center of the sheet or bull's eye. (See Fig. 3.) 

By the dexterous management of this operation, the glass 
is brought into a somewhat spherical form. 

The blower heats a third time at the bottoming hole, and 
blows the metal into a full-sized globe. (See Fig. 4.) 

When this part of the process has been completed, and 
the glass has been allowed to cool a little, it is rested on the 
casher box, and an iron rod, called a '■^pontiV or punty rod, 
on which a little hot metal has been previously gathered, is 
applied to the flattened side, exactly opposite the tube, which 
is detached by touching it with a piece of iron, dipped be- 
forehand in cold water, leaving a circular hole in the glass of 
about two inches diameter. The operation of attaching the 
punty is shown by Fig. 6. 

Taking hold of the punty rod, the workman presents the 
glass to another part of the furnace called the " nose hole," 
where the aperture made by its separation from the tube is 
now presented and kept until it has become sufficiently ductile 
to fit it for the operation of the flashing furnace. Whilst 
here, it is turned dexterously round, slowly at first, and after- 
ward with increasing rapidity ; and the glass yielding to the 
centrifugal force, the aperture just mentioned becomes en- 
larged. (See Fig. 6.) 

The workman, taking great care to preserve, by a regular 
motion, the circular figure of the glass, proceeds to whirl it 
round with increasing velocity, until the aperture suddenly 
flies open with a loud ruffling noise, which has been aptly com 
pared to the unfurling of a flag in a strong breeze ; and the 
glass becomes a circular plane or sheet, of from four to four 
and a half feet diameter, of equal thickness throughout, ex- 
cept at the point called bullion or bull's eye, where it is at- 
14 



210 Five Black Arts. 

tached to the iron rod. Figure 7 will give some idea of this 
very beautiful part of the process. 

The sheet of glass, now fully expanded, is moved round 
with a moderate velocity until it is sufficiently cool to 
retain its form. It is carried to the mouth of the kiln or an- 
nealing arch, where it is rested on a bed of sand, and detached 
from the punty rod by shears. The sheet or table is then lifted 
on a wide pronged fork, called a faucet (see Fig. 8), and put 
into the arch to be tempered, where it is ranged with many 
others set up edgewise, and supported by iron frames to pre- 
vent their bending. From four to six hundred tables are 
placed in one kiln. 

The kiln having been clayed up, the fire is permitted to 
die out, and the heat diminished as gradually as possible. 
When the glass is properly annealed, and sufficiently cold to 
admit of its being handled, it is withdrawn from the oven, 
after the removal of the wall built into the front of the arch, 
and is then quite ready for the glazier's use. It is first, how- 
ever, removed to the manufacturer's warehouse, where the 
circular sheets are cut into halves, and assorted into the differ- 
ent qualities, known to the tradesmen by the names of sec- 
onds, thirds, and fourths. 

We conclude our remarks on the manufacture by observing, 
that the quality of glass does not depend upon the mixtures 
alone, but also upon the treatment it receives after it 
has been made, the quality of the coals, and management of 
the furnaces. Cleanliness in every department of the manu- 
facture, a general knowledge of chemistry, and of the art in 
all its details, with the most unremitting industry, and skill 
in the direction and government of the operatives, are all 
essentially necessary for the production of good glass. 

MANUFACTURE OF BRITISH SHEET-GLASS. 

This article is manufactured by Messrs. Chances of West 
Bromwich, near Birmingham, and Messrs. Hartley and Com- 
pany, Sunderland, who, after having visited the glass manu- 
factories of France, Belgium, and Germany, commenced, in 
1832, the making of British sheet. The principle upon which 
it is manufactured is the same as that acted upon in the mak- 
ing of common or green glass. The metal is formed into 



Glass — Sheet. 211 

cylinders, and then flattened into sheets. The French, Bel- 
gians, and Germans, having pursued this system for the last 
fifty years in making their window-glass, have much improved 
the old mode of making it ; and as the parties who are now 
manufacturing this article in England are crown-glass makers, 
and have imported all the improvements adopted in the making 
of sheet-glass in France, Belgium, and Germany, and com- 
bined with these the improvements which their experience as 
crown-glass makers had taught them during the same period, 
they have surpassed the French, Belgians, and Germans in 
sheet-glass, and can now compete with them in all parts of 
the world. 

There is no crown-glass made in France ; and their win- 
dow-glass, though superior to our broad or common glass, 
is not equal to the British sheet. In Germany there is little 
crown-glass made, and that of a very inferior quality. The 
greater part of the glass made in that country is sheet, and 
it is of much better quality than the French or Belgian. 
In Germany a common sort of glass is made, in the fol- 
lowing manner : Three or four workmen form a partnership, 
and, having fixed upon a place in the woods where clay and 
sand are easily met with, they proceed to build a glass-house 
with wood and clay. They then make the pots, and, from the 
ashes of the wood which they burn, obtain potash, which, 
after it has been mixed with sand, they melt into glass. They 
blow the metal into cylinders, flatten it into sheets, cut, pack, 
in short, perform the whole operations from first to last, them- 
selves. Agooddealof thebestof the glass made in this manner 
is sent to Nuremburg, where it is polished and sent into Hol- 
land. Some of it is sometimes smuggled into this country, 
and is known by the designation of Dutch glass. 

The expense of making British sheet is about the same 
as making crown-glass, excepting in the case of large squares, 
when it is much less ; in crown-glass it is very difficult to 
get a square 34 x 22, but in sheet-glass the common size is 
40 X 30 ; nay, sheets are sometimes made as large as 50 x 86. 
Its other advantage over crown is, that it has none of that 
■wavy or curved appearance, by which the vision is so much 
distorted in crown-glass ; but, at the same time, sheet-glass 
has rather an unpleasant appearance when viewed from the 
outside of a building, in consequence of an unevenness of 



212 Five Black Arts. 

surface, technically termed cockled; when viewed, however, 
from the inside, it is difficult to distinguish it from plate-glass. 

The materials employed in the making of sheet-glass are 
the same as those used in the making of crown-glass. The 
large melting furnace is also very similar; in France and 
Belgium they usually contain six or eight pots, but at the 
British manufactories such furnaces contain ten pots, each con- 
taining seven cwts. of metal, which requires fourteen hours 
to melt. 

In a line with each pot, and four feet from the ground, are 
erected ten stages, with an open space between each, of 
about two feet, through which the workman swings his glass 
when making cylinders. When the metal is ready for work- 
ing, the ten workmen take their stations, each having his own 
pot and stage, and also an assistant, and commence making 
the cylinders, as follows : After gathering the quantity of 
metal required (which varies from three to twenty pounds), 
the workman places it in a horizontal position upon a wooden 
block, which has been hollowed, so that, when the workman 
turns the metal, it shall form it into a solid cylindrical mass. 
In the mean time, the assistant, with a sponge in his hand, 
and a bucket of water by his side, lets a fine stream of water 
run into the block, which keeps the wood from burning, and 
also gives a brilliancy to the surface of the glass. The 
water, the moment it comes in contact with the glass, is 
raised to the boiling point, and, in that state, does no injury 
to the metal ; but it is only when the metal is at a high tem- 
perature that such is the case ; for, whenever the glass is cool- 
ed to a certain degree, it immediately cracks upon coming in 
contact with water. When the workman perceives that the 
mass of metal is sufficiently formed and cooled, he raises the 
pipe to his mouth at an angle of about seventy-five degrees, and 
commences blowing it, at the same time continuing to turn it 
in the wood block, till he perceives the diameter to be of 
the requisite dimensions, which are usually about ten inches. 
He then reheats this cylindrical mass, and when it is sufficient- 
ly softened, commences swinging it over his head, continuing 
to reheat and swing till he has made it the desired length, 
which is commonly about forty inches. It is now in a cylin- 
drical form, forty inches long and ten inches in diameter, one 
end being closed and the other having the pipe attached to it. 
The workman now begins to open the end which is closed, 



Glass — Sheet. 213 

for -which purpose he incloses the air in the cylinder, by stop- 
ping the aperture of the pipe with his finger ; and then 
placing the closed end of the cylinder toward the fire, it 
becomes softened, while at the same time the air within is 
expanding, and, in about thirty seconds, the glass becomes 
too soft to retain it, and bursts, a small aperture being form- 
ed at the point of the cylinder. The workman then turns 
the cylinder round very quickly, and, by keeping it warm at 
the same time, flashes it out perfectly straight ; the other end, 
which is attached to the pipe, has now to be cut oiF. This is 
done in the following manner : The workman having gath- 
ered a small quantity of metal on the pontil, draws it out into 
a thread of about one-eighth of an inch in diameter, laps it 
round the pipe end of the cylinder, and, after letting it re- 
main there for about five seconds, withdraws it suddenly, 
and immediately applies a cold iron to the heated part, which 
occasions such a sudden contraction, that it cracks off where 
the hot string of glass has been placed round it. The work- 
man having now formed a perfect cylinder of forty inches in 
length and ten in diameter, has, before it can be flattened, to 
split it on one side, so that it can be opened out ; but before 
doing this, he is obliged to let it cool, and then, laying the 
cylinder horizontally upon a bench, draws a red hot iron two 
or three times along the inner surface. The cylinder, thus 
heated, splits along the heated part, owing to the expansion 
of the glass when heated, its cylindrical form preventing its 
breaking at the point of expansion. 

The blower having now completed his cylinder, hands it 
over to the flattener to make it into a flat sheet ; to accom- 
plish which, two furnaces are built together, the one for flat- 
tening the cylinders, the other for annealing the sheets, the 
former being kept at a much higher temperature than the 
latter. The cylinder after being gradually reheated, is placed 
in the center of the flattening furnace, upon a smooth stone, 
with the cracked side upward. In a short time it becomes 
softened by the heat, and by its own weight falls out into a flat 
square sheet of forty inches by thirty. The flattener, with 
a piece of charred wood, rubs it quite smooth, and then pla- 
ces it in the annealing arch, where it remains about three 
days to be annealed. A workman will make sixty cylinders 
40 X 50 in one day ; and a flattener can flatten the same 



214 Five Black Arts. 

number in the same time. This glass can be made of any 
thickness from one-twentieth to half an inch. 

The same enterprising companies also manufacture exten- 
sively every variety of colored glass used by the glass-stainer, 
which is gathered, rolled, blown, and flattened, in a similar way 
with the sheet-glass, the pot-metal being gathered from one 
pot, and the flashed glass from two, one containing colorless 
and the other colored metal, which being blown and distend- 
ed together are combined, while each portion retains its individ- 
ual character. These oval and square glass shades used for 
covering French clocks and other ornaments, as well as glass 
dishes for dairy purposes, are also made by these parties ; and 
since the abolition of the glass duties are much in demand. 

There is another species of glass called broad or common 
window-glass, which is formed of the coarsest materials. 
The ingredients usually employed are, six measures of soap- 
boilers' waste, three of kelp, and three or four of sand. 
After these have been fritted for from twenty to thirty hours, 
they are removed while red hot to the pots in the working 
furnace, where, in the space of from twelve to fifteen hours, 
they are reduced to a fluid state. The metal is taken out in 
the manner already described, and blown into globes about a 
foot in diameter. A piece of iron dipped in cold water is 
run along them, and produces a crack nearly rectilinear ; and, 
while yet warm and ductile, these spheres are opened out and 
flattened on a smooth iron plate at the mouth of the furnace. 

MANUFACTURE OF PLATE-GLASS. 

This description of glass may be manufactured in the same 
manner as broad window-glass, or by casting the materials in 
a state of fusion upon a flat surface. Little correct informa- 
tion has been published relative to the manufacture of plate- 
glass, from the reluctance of proprietors to permit their works 
to be examined by individuals who are capable of giving an 
intelligible account of them. If such are permitted to scan 
the mysteries, they are generally restricted to keep secret 
the information which they have acquired. The late Mr. 
Parks the chemist, however, seems to have been exempted from 
this condition, and after having visited the premises of the Brit- 
ish Plate-Glass Company, at Ravenhead, in Lancashire, he 



Glass — Plate. 215 

published a short account of the process as there carried on. 
Besides the above manufactory in Britain, may be mentioned 
that of Messrs. Swinburne and Company, South Shields, 
the Thames Plate-Glass Company, the Union Plate-Glass 
Company, St. Helen's ; and W. A. A. West's, Eccleston. 
Plate-glass is also made at St. Gobain in France, besides 
other places upon the Continent. 

The following is Loysel's account of the relative propor- 
tions of the materials used at St. Gobain, in the manufacture 
of plate-glass: White sand, 100 parts; carbonate of lime, 
12 ditto ; soda, 45 to 48 ditto ; fragments of glass of like 
quality, 100 ditto; oxide of manganese, i- The following pro- 
portions of ingredients are said to produce the best descrip- 
tion of this article : Lynn sand which has been well washed 
and dried, 720 parts; alkaline salt containing 40 per cent, 
of soda, 450 ditto ; lime slacked and sifted, 80 ditto ; 
niter, 25 ditto ; broken plate-glass, 425 ditto. These quan- 
tities produce one pot of metal, which yields 1200 pounds of 



Great nicety must be observed in conducting the processes 
of this manufacture. The materials must be selected with 
the utmost care. The sand should be of the whitest and finest 
description, and well washed and passed through a sieve, pre- 
viously to being mixed with the other ingredients. Soda is 
always preferred to potash, because it imparts a higher de 
gree of fluidity to the glass, and also because the impurities 
whiuh it contains are more easily dissipated by the heat. 
Lime acts as a flux, and manganese has the effect of giving a 
slightly reddish hue to the mixture by which the colors of 
the other materials are neutralized, so that scarcely any ap- 
preciable tint remains. Cobalt is likewise used in some 
manufactories, much for the same purpose as manganese. 
The broken glass or ciillet as it is technically called, is those 
fragmentary portions which are cut from the plates when 
they are squared, or that which may flow over in the process 
of casting. The sand, lime, soda, and manganese, being 
properly mingled in the proportions above given, are fritted 
in small furnaces, where the temperature is gradually raised 
to a red or white heat, and there maintained until no more 
vapor is evolved, nor change undergone by the mixture. 
This process occupies six hours, and after its completion the 



216 Five Black Arts. 

other ingredients are added, consisting of cullet and cobalt. 
At St. Gobain there are two kinds of crucibles employed ; 
the one in which the glass is melted is called a pot, and has 
the shape of an inverted truncated cone ; the other is entitled 
a cuvette ; it is kept empty in the furnace, and exposed to the 
full degree of heat. Forty hours are requisite to vitrify the 
materials properly, and bring the glass to a fit state for cast- 
ing. The pots are skimmed in the manner already described. 
When the liquid mass has been properly refined, the cuvette is 
filled by a copper ladle, and after suflBcient time is allowed for 
the bubbles created by this disturbance to escape, it is re- 
moved to the table where the plates are cast. Copper was the 
metal of which tables were formerly constructed ; but cast iron 
has now been found to answer the purpose completely, and it 
is greatly superior to copper in this respect, that it remains 
uninjured during all the sudden transitions of temperature to 
which it must be subjected. The British Plate-Glass Com- 
pany were the first to introduce this improvement. They 
procured a plate fifteen feet long, nine feet wide, and six 
inches thick. The sides are provided with metallic ribs, the 
depth being exactly the measure of thickness which it is de- 
sired the glass should be of. During the casting there is a 
similar rib temporararily attached to the lower end of the table. 
The cuvette being filled with melted glass, it is withdrawn from 
the furnace by means of a crane, taken to the upper end of the 
casting table, and after being properly scummed, and eleva- 
ted to a sufficient height by means of a crane, it is emptied 
of its contents. The surface of the melted matter is then 
smoothed by means of a large hollow copper cylinder, which 
extends across the table, resting upon the side ribs. This is 
set in motion, and rolled over the glass, by which process it is 
spread out into a sheet of uniform breadth and thickness. When 
the plate has become completely hardened, it is carefully in- 
spected, to see that no flaws or bubbles appear on the surface. 
Should any be found, the sheet is immediately divided by 
cutting through them. It is afterward removed to the an- 
nealing oven, where it is placed in a horizontal position, and 
remains for about fifteen days. When glass is in a high 
state of fluidity it is liable to be injured even by a draught 
of air, so that the apartment must be kept as free as possible 
from disturbance. The opening or shutting of a door, by 



GLASS. ] 



[ Pl.ATK i. 





Glass — Plate. 217 

setting the air in motion, might impair the value of the plate. 
After having been withdrawn from the annealing oven, they 
have to undergo the operations of squaring, grinding, polish- 
ing, and silvering, before they are fit for the market. These 
processes have thus been described by a late writer upon the 
subject : 

" The first process — that of squaring- and smoothing the 
edges — is performed by passing a rough diamond along the 
surface of the glass, guided by a square rule ; the diamond 
cuts to a certain depth into the substance, when, by gently strik- 
ing the glass with a small hammer underneath the part 
which is cut, the piece comes away ; and the roughnesses of 
the edge then left are removed by pincers. The plate is then 
taken to the grinding apartment. 

" The next step is to imbed each of the plates upon a table 
or frame adjusted horizontally, and made of either freestone 
or wood, cementing the glass securely thereto by plaster of 
Paris. One plate being then reversed and suspended over 
another, the material employed in grinding their surfaces is 
introduced between the two, and they are made to rub stead- 
ily and evenly upon each other by means of machinery set in 
motion by a steam-engine." River sand and water were for- 
merly used for the purpose of abraiding the surface, but 
ground flint is now substituted, as answering the purpose bet- 
ter. When one side of each plate has been sufficiently 
ground, it is loosened from the frame, and turned over, so as 
to present the other surface to be ground in the same manner. 
Some degree of pressure is employed, by loading the upper 
plate with weights, as the grinding of each side approaches 
completion. The process thus described used formerly to last 
during three entire days, but this time is now much abridged. 
The greatest attention is required in order to finish with the 
surfaces perfectly level and parallel, for which end a rule 
and plumb-line are employed. 

By means of this grinding, the plates will have been made 
level ; but they are too rough to receive a polish. To fit 
them for this, they must again be ground with emery powder 
of increasing degrees of fineness. The preparation and sort- 
ing of this powder are effected in the following simple and 
ingenious manner : "A considerable quantity of emery is 
put into a vessel containing water, and is stirred about violent- 



218 Five Black Arts. 

ly until the whole is mechanically mixed with the water. 
Emery is absolutely insoluble by such means ; and if the mix- 
ture were left at rest during a sufficient time, the whole 
would subside in layers ; the coarsest and heaviest particles 
sinidng first, and so on successively, until the very finest par- 
ticles would range themselves as the upper stratum. Previ- 
ously to this, however, and while these finest grains are still 
suspended in the water, it is poured off into a separate ves- 
sel, and the emery is there allowed to settle. A fresh supply 
of water is poured into the first vessel, the contents of which 
are again violently agitated, and allowed partially to subside 
as before. A shorter interval is allowed for this than in the 
first case ; and then the liquor is poured off into a third vessel, 
by which means emery of the second degree of fineness is 
separated. This operation is repeated in order to obtain pow- 
ders having five different degrees of fineness. The deposits 
are then separately dried upon a stove to a consistence proper 
for making them up into small balls, in which form they are 
delivered to the workmen. 

" In this further rubbing together, or, as it is called, smooth- 
ing of the glass plates, it must be understood that the coarsest 
emery is first used, and so on, substituting powders having 
increasing degrees of fineness as the work proceeds." * 

These processes finished, the glass, although perfectly even, 
appears opaque or deadened on the surface, and requires pol- 
ishing. This is effected in the following manner : A piece 
of wood is covered with numerous folds of woolen cloth, the 
layers being divided by some carded wool interposed between 
each, the whole forming a tolerably hard but elastic cushion, 
which is furnished with a handle. The plate is laid upon a 
bed of plaster, as already described, and the cushion being 
wetted, is covered with the red oxide of iron (the colco- 
thar of commerce), and moved backward and forward upon 
the surface of the plate. Lastly, if the glass be intended for 
mirrors, it is silvered, that is, covered on one side with a thin 
coating of amalgam of tin and mercury. 

The process of blowing plate-glass differs so slightlj' from 
the methods used in producing broad glass, that they need 
not be here repeated. Any difference that does exist, arises 

* Glass Manufacture, Lardner's CaUnet Oydopcedia, No. 26. 



Glass — Stained ok Painted. 219 

from the great bulk and weight of the mass of glass operated 
upon. 

STAINED OR PAINTED GLASS. 

In an age like the present, when a high state of civiliza- 
tion and refinement demands the most careful and diligent 
cultivation of those arts which minister to the gratification 
of refined taste, Glass Painting, as an art now acknowledged 
indispensable in the decoration of our churches, palaces, etc., 
has assumed an importance not attained at any former period ; 
and from its progress in connection with our present advances 
in artistic knowledge, we may safely infer, that if the noble 
elements in its nature and capabilities be fairly and legiti- 
mately applied, it will become the most potent agent in ad- 
vancing the standard of architectural decoration. Within these 
few years in our own country, its progress has been altogether 
wonderful. Since the abolition of the duties on glass, Britain 
has produced the rarest and the richest colored glass in end- 
less profusion and variety. Light has been admitted into 
gorgeous apartments through domes filled with colored glass 
of colossal dimensions, the decorations of which, worked out 
from the designs of the architects, enhance and give power 
to the other ornamentation of the interiors, and produce a 
coup-d'oeil not previously known nor dreamt of. Stained 
glass windows for churches have been, and are being executed 
in Britain, which, for appropriate design, brilliant color, sub- 
dued tone, symmetrical proportion, minute manipulation, and 
variety of carefully considered detail, stand comparison with 
the best existing specimens of mediaeval times. Windows 
for palatial and baronial structures have also been recently 
produced in this country, whereon are traced in imperishable 
lines, and blazoned in unfading colors, correct effigies of his- 
torical personages, representations of historical events, genea- 
logical arrangements of heraldic bearings, and other legends 
and memorials, which will convey to distant times a favorable 
idea of the state of British art in the nineteenth century. The 
earliest record which we possess concerning the existence of 
this beautiful art is of the age of Pope Leo III., that is, about 
the year 800, a period in which many of the most magnificent 
ecclesiastical edifices on the Continent were erected. It is 



220 Five Black Arts. 

not known with certainty when stained glass was made use of 
for pictorial or figure subjects, but the historian of a monas- 
tery at Dijon, writing in the eleventh century, says, that there 
existed in his time in the church of his monastery some very 
ancient glass representing the mystery of the Holy Euchar- 
ist, and that this glass picture had been taken from the old 
church previous to its restoration. The earliest specimens of 
stained glass are composed of small pieces of glass, imbued 
throughout with color, united by grooved leaden joinings. It 
has been suggested that this arose from the glass-makers of 
that period not being able to make it in larger jueces. If so, 
in so far as sparkling brilliancy in glass decorations is a de- 
sideratum, it might almost have been as well for the art that 
the manufacturers of the colored metals had still been in the 
same position. BrilHancy is always increased in the same 
ratio with the number of pieces of glass in the composition. 

Nothing could be more instructive or interesting than an 
investigation of the relative merits of the existing specimens 
of the art during the six centuries it was so diligently and 
effectively cultivated in connection with ecclesiastical archi- 
tecture ; but this inquiry would be too extensive to be opened 
up here. The following remarks, therefore, are confined to 
a few of the leading points in the glass of the various styles 
which prevailed in succession from the eleventh to the seven- 
teenth century, in which may be traced very clearly the prog- 
ress of the architects, under whom the glass painters worked, 
from clumsy and servile imitators to bold and original designers. 

The Norman style, in its early period, was a direct though 
imperfect imitation of Roman architecture ; but when pointed 
architecture had attained its greatest perfection, its chief 
feature was originality. During the gradual development of 
this, its peculiar characteristic, the openings in the walls by 
degrees were enlarged, until they ultimately became the prin- 
cipal points, and it was requisite that they should be ju- 
diciously decorated ; and in no branch of art connected with 
pointed architcture can its onward movement be more clearly 
traced than in the painted glass windows. 

The painted glass of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, 
like the Norman architecture of which it formed a part, was 
stately and of a magnificent character. The colors were of 
the most vivid and most positive description. There was no 



Glass — Stained or Painted. 221 

spot left for the eje to repose on ; no neutral tints nor sec- 
ondary colors were introduced. The whole of the ground 
and foliage were filled with intense color, ruby and blue inva- 
riably preponderating. The same love of violent and striking 
contrast as is peculiar to man in a state of semi-barbarism 
was manifested in the coloring of the windows of that period, 
and the general effect must have been congenial to the ro- 
mantic and martial spirit of the age of chivalry. The leading 
forms Avere massive and simple, consisting chiefly of the circle 
and square, filled up chiefly with clumsy imitations of the fo- 
liated ornament to be found in Roman architecture. When 
figures were introduced, they were like those in the Bayeux 
tapestry, marvelously correct in costume, though dispropor- 
tionate in drawing, and filled up with strong positive colors, 
flat, and the outline defined chiefly by the strong thick lines 
of the lead, resembling those highly titled personages repre- 
sented on packs of cards, or those in Chinese processions, as 
delineated by the native artists of the Celestial empire. 

In the thirteenth century, the painted glass, like the pri- 
mary pointed or early English architecture of which it formed 
a part, was of a light and elegant character. The glass 
painter had then acquired a more correct idea of what con- 
stituted beauty, both in form and color. The positive colors 
were now used more sparingly, and indeed were almost 
confined to geometric bands, central points, and borders con- 
tinued round each entire light. The general grounds were 
of a beautiful tint of neutral gray, produced by lines inter- 
sected at right angles, from which were relieved by bold lines 
scrolls of foliated ornament in clear colorless glass. The 
glass in the Sister windows of York Minster may be named 
as one of the finest existing specimens of this description. 
Figures and subjects also, when introduced, were better drawn 
than formerly. The faces were kept colorless, slightly shaded 
with brown of a rough gritty texture. The secondary colors 
were used in the draperies with a most delicious effect, soft- 
ening and harmonizing the whole composition, and giving a 
lightness and variety previously unknown. In the leading 
forms of the ornamental portions also were seen repeated the 
geometric features of the building ; and in the glass of the 
period we can recognize repetitions of the ground plans of 
the shafts, with the enrichments on the laps and on the mould- 



222 Five Black Arts. 

ings of the windows and doorways. In the foliaged back- 
grounds, amid repetitions of the ancient Eoman foliage, we 
now and then get fragments of simple foliage, such as trefoils, 
evidently taken from nature ; and we are able to trace in 
progress an art which was shortly to become as original as 
!)eautiful, and dependent entirely on the artist's knowledge 
and appreciation of nature and geometry. 

During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, when the 
secondary pointed or decorated style of architecture gradually 
developed its immense resources, and advanced steadily toward 
perfection, we find that the glass advanced in the same ratio 
as the art with which it was associated. In accordance with 
certain fixed rules of proportion, the glass artists elongated, 
intersected, diversified, and arranged rectangular, triangular, 
and curvilinear figures, and made these harmonious combina- 
tions their leading points for color. They were thus enabled 
with certainty to produce a pleasing effect, and to fill up the 
detail according to their own fancy, with an imitation of the 
common weeds, flowers, and plants that they found growing 
around them. This principle was carried out in every por- 
tion of the detail in the remarkable structures then erected ; 
and the exquisite imitations of vegetables and plants on the 
carving of the caps, friezes, and mouldings, show the extra- 
ordinary love of nature which must have animated these fra- 
ternities of artistic minds by whom these details were worked 
out. The monks of Melrose made " gude kail," says the old 
song, and from the exquisite manner in which that vegetable 
has been carved on some of the portions of that fine old abbey, 
one would conclude that the carvers must have shared largely 
and appreciated highly the " gude kail " of the holy brother- 
hood, a feeling no doubt also entertained by the glass painters 
of the structure whose works would doubtless exhibit similar 
genius with the glass of that period, which was well charac- 
terized by a rich juicy natural freshness, as well as an easy 
play of elegant outline and graceful proportion. In many in- 
stances also, the gray background produced by intersected lines 
was abandoned, and a tint of rough gray obscure subtituted, 
which imparted to the whole a softer effect, and gave a better 
relief to the outlined foliage of which the diapering was com- 
posed. At this period also, glass painting had attracted art- 
ists of high genius, and the figures and subjects in the glass 



Glass — Stained or Painted. 223 

of the period are perfect specimens of what the art ought to 
be. These artists tested its capabiUties, and how well and 
thoroughly they did so may be seen in Cologne Cathedral, 
where the flowing, bold, and elegant outline, the rough semi- 
transparent texture, the calm expressive countenances and 
attitudes of the figures of Durer and his cotemporaries, fairly 
set aside and overpower the glowing, brilliant, but frowsy 
specimens there of modern German art, as practiced in Mu- 
nich, under the auspices of the Bavarian government. Per- 
haps, also, the ornamental glass of the period in that structure 
will be found equal to any in the world for geometrical sym- 
metry and natural foHage, the latter imitated from the com- 
mon weeds and plants indigenous to the locality. So fasci- 
nating and far-famed were the painted glass windows of that 
period, so novel were the effects produced by the rich semi- 
transparent shadows and reflected lights, that Mr. Eastlake 
conjectures that the increase of color in shade which is so 
remarkable in the Venetian and early Flemish pictures may 
have been suggested by the slight shading on the stained 
glass through which it was transmitted. Over the Lady 
Chapel in the north aisle of York Minster are two windows 
of this period remarkable for the brilliancy and quiet feeling 
formerly alluded to as indispensable in glass painting of a 
high character. 

After the decorated period painted glass degenerated first 
into the flat, tame insipidity of the perpendicular style, and 
then ran riot in the extravagant tortuosities and monstrosities 
of the capped, jeweled and double gilt details of Elizabeth- 
an architecture, which it seems a fallacy to suppose was 
imported from Italy. At the time of its introduction a strong 
tide of feeling had set in against every thing that pertained 
to the Roman Catholic religion, and it seems unlikely that 
after having diverged from the style with which that religion 
had so long been identified, the nation should have imported 
any thing from Italy, its headquarters and chief stronghold. 
It rather seems probable that at a time when attempts were 
made to get quit of every existing form and style of archi- 
tectural decoration, there would be awakened a strong desire 
for novelty ; and when it is remembered that the newly dis- 
covered continent of America was visited by crowds of ad- 
venturers, it will not appear unlikely that many of these 



224 Five Black Arts. 

adventurers must have been delighted and dazzled with the 
magnificent and unique architectural structures which adorned 
the ancient cities of Central America, and may have imported 
home and introduced into English architecture many of the 
features which we are accustomed to beheve were originated 
in the Elizabethan era. The painted glass of that period 
partakes of the same character; and in Du Paix's great 
work on New Spain will be found something very like the 
origin of many of these pecuharities, eccentricities, and het- 
erogeneous conglomerations which characterize the wood and 
stone carving, as well as the wall and window decorations of 
that extraordinary style of architecture. 

From this rapid sketch of the history of the rise and de- 
cadence of painted glass, it appears that there is no limit to 
its capabilities; and that forming, as it does, a leading ar- 
chitectural decoration, it is as well adapted to one style as 
another. If the principles of harmonious coloring and sym- 
metrical proportion be carefully attended to, as was the case 
in the best specimens of the art in the mediaeval period, 
painted glass must ever be regarded as one of the most at- 
tractive decorations for church or mansion. It is no doubt 
a species of mosaic, and the artist must generally depend on 
harmonious combinations of color and continuity and firmness 
of outline for the effect he intends to produce, as the brilliant 
coloring and mosaic character are lost in the same ratio as 
shading is introduced. 

It is also true that windows are generally intended for the 
transmission of light, and that in some cases the sacrifice of 
light required for pictorial efiect cannot be made. Yet who 
can resist the attractions of such pictorial glass as is to be 
found in the windows of St. Gudule at Brussels, or St. Jans 
Kirk at Gouda, where the principles of chiaro-oscuro and per- 
spective are fully developed, where foreground and distance 
hold their proper places, and where the lights and brilliant 
colors are arranged in a manner to rival the best specimens 
of the ancient masters of painting in oil. This mode of treat- 
ment is not to be advocated for general use, but where there 
is light enough and to spare, and where men of high artistic 
powers apply themselves to glass painting, they may safely 
be left to their own genius, and allowed to render their con- 
ceptions as vividly and perfectly in glass as others do on can- 



GLASS. ] 



[ Plate 3. 




^ 


■&% 


00 III ' S S S . 



Glass — Stained or Painted, 225 

vas. The dull, heavy, uniform opacitj which pervaded the 
glass of the last century, when it was made up in squares, 
the colors fused, and the whole work looked like cloth trans- 
parencies, is not to be tolerated. The brightest colors that 
can be produced in pot metals joined in the ancient way by 
leading ought always to be used ; and although in general 
the effect of mosaics in low relief may be preferable, yet the 
shading and toning requisite to give full eifect to a good pic- 
torial design may be given without detracting greatly from 
the light. 

Glass is the most enduring species of artistic medium, and 
it is to be hoped that this quality will yet cause eminent 
artists to leave the impress of their genius on painted windows. 
Had the art of painting on glass been known in the age of 
Phidias, we might have had preserved, in colors as vivid as 
when the works were executed, the Jupiter of Homer by 
Apelles, the pictorial embodiment of the Athenian character 
by Parrhasius. A singular fact illustrative of the durability 
of painted glass may here be stated in connection with York 
Minster. When the nave of that fine structure was de- 
stroyed by fire, the heat was so intense that many of the 
stones were calcined. When the leaden framing of the 
windows melted, the glass made of many small pieces fell 
down undamaged, and was afterward carefully rebuilt in new 
leading and fixed in its original place, where it now remains 
the most fragile yet the most enduring portion of the ancient 
structure. 

In ornamental painted glass the positive colors ought gen- 
erally to be used sparingly, and confined to the chief points in 
the composition. When overloaded with color, the sparkling 
brilliancy so desirable in painted glass is entirely lost. The 
general ground of the window should be of a neutral tint 
suitable in tone to its character and situation. In a southern 
aspect this tone should be of a cool gray, and the positive 
colors, blue, green, and purple, ought to predominate over 
ruby, yellow, and orange. In a northern aspect the general 
ground should be of a warm sunny tint, and the warm ought 
to predominate over the cold colors. An eastern window 
ought to approximate in color to a northern, a western to a 
south window. 

It is always desirable to have a combination of straight 
15 



226 Five Black Arts. 

and curved lines in the leading forms of painted glass. As 
in the human body, the effect of the elliptic curvature of the 
muscles is enhanced by the angular position of the straight 
lines on which they are placed, or by the sharp square indi- 
cations of the bony extremities, in like manner the curvilineal 
lines in ornamental decorations appear to more advantage 
■when balanced by a harmonious proportion of straight lines. 
A very important feature in glass is diapered work in the 
backgrounds, a great variety of designs for which may be 
obtained from plants and flowers by the wayside, in the field, 
or the garden ; and the more homely these are, they are often 
the more suggestive and pleasing. Borderings are almost 
indispensable in all ornamental painted-glass windows. They 
bind together what might otherwise be disjointed and scat- 
tered, and afford scope for endless variety of design, both in 
form and color. Heraldic symbols and emblazonments have 
always been amongst the most attractive features in stained- 
glass windows. The points which most shields form for a 
balance of positive color ; the crests, mantling, supporters, 
and mottoes, twisting or twining either quaintly or gracefully 
through the composition, not to speak of the interesting nature 
of heraldry as a guide through the intricate mazes of family 
connection, wending through the depths of ages — all tend to 
render it the most admirable field on which the glass painter 
can be engaged. For hall or library windows such devices 
are very appropriate, and indeed so highly are they appre- 
ciated, and so much is painted glass now coming into repute, 
that there is scarcely a new house of any pretensions without 
its library or staircase stained-glass window. In towns where 
back drawing-room windows look into mean or filthy lanes, 
what a delightful remedy is found in light sparkling stained 
glass. Either heraldic blazon, family monograms, or orna- 
mental devices, may be used ; and if the inner window be 
fitted up flush with the inner wall, and the room lighted at 
night mainly from lights placed between the outer and inner 
windows, the effect is chaste and beautiful. 

Restorations of windows connected with ancient edifices 
afford fine media for embodying local legends or historical 
local incidents. In new structures for public purposes what 
place so fitting or so striking as the windows for represen- 
tations of men eminent in connection with such institutions 



I 



Glass — Stained or Painted. 227 

Monumental windows have recently been introduced into 
churches with excellent effect, and they afford scope for in- 
vention as various as the characters of those whose virtues 
they are designed to commemorate. In churches even in 
Scotland stained glass is rapidly assuming its ancient impor- 
tance, and there can be little doubt that it will ultimately be 
so much encouraged and cultivated that the windows of our 
public edifices will be the honored medium of transmitting to 
remote posterity the works of the master-minds of British 
art. 

Except in the name, painting on glass has no resemblance 
to any other department of the pictorial art but that of por- 
celain. Both the colors, and the process of their application 
throughout, are entirely different. Where animal and vege- 
table substances are freely used as coloring matter In every 
other department of pictorial art, they are wholly excluded 
in that of glass painting, where all the pigments used are 
subjected, after being laid on, to the operation of fire, to 
make them penetrate the body of the glass, or become fused 
on its surface — a process which would wholly destroy the 
coloring properties of such substances. All the colors era- 
ployed in glass painting and staining are oxides of metals or 
minerals, as gold, silver, cobalt, which not only stand the fire, 
but require the powerful interference of that agent to bring 
out their brilliancy and transparency. Some colors, on the 
application of heat, penetrate the body of the glass, and from 
this circumstance, are called stains ; while others, being 
mixed with a vitreous substance called flux, become fused or 
vitrified on the surface. The former produces a variety of 
colors, and all of them are perfectly transparent. The pro- 
duce of the latter are only semi-transparent, but they may be 
made to yield any color or tint required. 

In preparing these colors, the most important point to be 
attended to is, to have all those that are to be used at the 
same time of an equal degree of softness. To attain this, 
those that are hard, and require a great degree of heat to 
make them effective, must be fixed first ; leaving the soft 
colors, for which a slight heat only is necessary, to the last. 
If used promiscuously, and without regard to this precaution, 
some of the colors would be rendered too fluid, while others 



228 Five Black Arts. 

would be insufficientlj fused, and the work in consequence 
spoiled. 

GLAZING OF WINDOWS. 

Putty, an important and indispensable article in the gla- 
zier's trade, is composed of whiting and linseed oil. Chalk 
is sometimes used instead of the former, but the expense and 
labor incurred in preparing it is much greater, and besides 
it generally contains sand, so that it is no object to the glazier 
to employ it. Whiting is in every way to be preferred ; it 
must be thoroughly dried before the oil is added to it, other- 
wise the union will not be effected, or at least it will be very 
imperfect. 

After the whiting has been thoroughly dried and prepared , 

it ought to be passed through a very fine sieve, and all the 

''remaining lumps and knots pulverized, and then also passed 

through the sieve. Great care must be taken to keep the 

whiting free of sand and other extraneous substances. 

When putty is to be made, put the proper quantity of oil 
into a tub or other open vessel, and gradually add the whiting 
whilst yet in a hot state, at the same time keeping the whole 
in motion with a stick, until it becomes of a suflScient con- 
sistency to admit of being wrought by the hand on a board 
or table. Having been removed thither from the tub, it 
must be wrought up with dry whiting, until it is converted 
into a compact mass. When brought to this state, it ought 
to be put into a hollowed stone or mortar, and beat with a 
wooden mallet till it becomes soft and tenacious, when more 
whiting must be added, until it has attained a proper con- 
sistency. 

When putty is required of a superior degree of fineness, 
and which will also dry quickly, add a little sugar of lead or 
litharge ; and if an increase of strength be wanted, a little 
white lead. 

When the panes have been fitted into the checks of the 
sashes, they must be removed, and the checks well bedded 
with beat putty. This done, the panes are again returned to 
their places, and gently pressed or lodged in the bedding, 
the workman, as it were, humoring the glass should it be 
bent or twisted, and taking care that there is no hard ex- 



Glass — Glazing of Windows. 229 

traneous substance mingled with the puttj, which might en- 
danger, if not actually break the glass. When a pane is 
perfectly bedded it lies quite firm, and does not spring from 
the putty ; but when, either from a perverse bend or twist in 
the glass, or any other accidental cause, it happens that it 
cannot be made to go quite close to the check, the vacant 
space must be carefully and neatly filled upon the back putty- 
ing, otherwise the window will not be impervious to the 
weather, and will be very apt to fall into decay by the ad- 
mission of moisture. 

The convex or round side of the pane, where such a shape 
occurs, should be presented to the outside, and the concave 
or hollow to the inside. When thus placed, they resist the 
weather better than if the hollow sides were exposed to it. 

After the pane has been bedded, the next process is the 
outside puttying. This putty should be kept in the fore check, 
about the thirty-second part of an inch below the level 
of the inside check, so as to allow the thin layer of paint 
which binds these two substances together to join the putty 
and glass ; and that it may not offend the eye by being seen 
from the inside ; and that, when it is painted, the brush may 
not encroach on any visible part of the pane, leaving those 
ragged lines or marks which arc so often seen from the inside 
on ill-finished windows, and which are so displeasing to the 
eye. This operation, and finishing the corners, are two nice 
points in the art, and therefore, when properly done, discover 
the neat-handed and skillful workman. 

All frames or sashes of windows ought, before being glazed, 
to receive one or two coats of white paint, to which a small 
portion of red lead has been added to facilitate its drying, 
and to give increased strength and durability to the paint. 

Lattice or Lead Windows. — This antique and singularly 
beautiful style of glazing has unaccountably fallen much into 
disuse, although of late years it has certainly undergone 
something like a resuscitation, in consequence of a revival of 
the public taste for stained glass, and a growing predilection 
for Mediaeval architecture in churches, cottages, and the like. 
For these, and for staircase windows, and indeed all windows 
similarly situated, as in halls, lobbies, or the like, it is par- 
ticularly adapted. 

It may be proper to premise, that lead windows require 



230 Five Black Arts. 

stained or colored glass for producing their fullest and best 
effects, and it was with stained glass onlj that they were 
originally constructed ; but very neat and elegant windows 
are executed in this style with plain glass, where variety and 
beauty of figure are made to compensate in some measure for 
the absence of color. 

Lead windows may be made to any pattern, and in this there 
is great scope for the display of a correct taste. In the time 
of Elizabeth, this branch of the glazier's art was carried to 
great excellence, especially by one Walter Geddes, who was 
employed in glazing most of the royal and public buildings 
of that period. Geddes executed in this style some windows 
of transcendent beauty, displaying an endless variety of the 
most elegant and elaborate figures. The most useful and most 
common description of plain glass lead windows, however, 
are those of the diamond or lozenge shape ; but, as already 
said, they may be made to any pattern desired. 

The lead work can be adapted with ease to any pattern 
that may be chosen for the glass ; and it can likewise be made 
to any breadth, from one-eighth to five-eighths of an inch. 

The apparatus and tools necessary for producing this are, 
a glazier's vice or lead mill, moulds for casting the lead into 
slender bars or rods of about eighteen inches in length, which 
is the first process ; and a three-fourth inch chisel ; a hard- 
wood fillet for forcing the glass into the grooves in the lead 
frame-work ; and an opener or wedge tool, made also of hard 
wood, or ebony, for laying open the grooves for the reception 
of the glass ; two copper bolts for soldering, the end formed 
like an egg. 

The lead intended to be employed in window-making must 
be soft, and of the very best quality ; and great care must 
be taken to have the moulds properly tempered, otherwise 
the lead will not be equally diffused in them, and the castings 
consequently not perfectly solid throughout, as they ought 
to be. 

The castings are, as already noticed, usually about eigh- 
teen inches in length, and are afterward extended by the 
mill to the length of five or six feet. 

It may not be unnecessary to add, that the mill not only 
extends the lead, and reduces it at the pleasure of the op- 
erator to the dimensions required, but at the same time forms 



Glass — The Cutting Diamond. 231 

the grooves into which the edge of the glass is afterward in- 
troduced in forming the window. 

When the lead has been prepared in the manner described, 
the glazier ought to proceed to cut out the panes wanted. 
For this operation he must prepare by first outlining the full 
dimensions of the window, and then lining it off to the pat- 
tern required, shaping the panes accordingly. If the window 
is of a large size, this may be done by compartments, to be 
afterward united, and thus be more conveniently wrought. 

When all the glass has been cut for the window, the next 
thing to be done is to open the grooves in the lead with the 
opener or wedge tool. The panes are then, in order that they 
may be water-tight, fastened very firmly into the grooves with 
the wooden fillet already spoken of (which may be fixed on the 
handle of the chisel or cutting-tool), the parallel lines of lead 
being secured in their proper places on the board, when the 
window is of the diamond shape, by a small nail at either end, 
until the course is finished, when the work is permanently 
fastened by running a small quantity of solder gently over 
the two connecting pieces of lead at each joint, or angular 
point. When the window has been completed, it should be 
removed from the working board to a flat table, and there 
covered with a thick layer of cement, composed of white lead, 
lamp-black, red lead, litharge, and boiled linseed oil, with a 
half-worn paint-brush, and the composition carefully rubbed 
into every joint. This will render the window completely 
impervious to the weather, as the cement, if properly laid on, 
will fill every chink, where it will soon become as hard and 
durable as any other of the materials of which the window is 
composed. 

The window, on being fitted into the frame, that is, on 
being set in its place in the building for which it is intended, 
ought to be supported with iron rods, extending three-eighths 
of an inch beyond the breadth of the frame on each side, 
running across it at the distance of from twelve to fourteen 
inches from each other, and secured to the lead frame-work 
at intervals with copper wire. 

THE CUTTING DIAMOND. 

Before the introduction of the diamond as an agent in 
cutting glass, that operation was performed by means of 



232 Five Black Arts. 

emery, sharp pointed instruments of the hardest steel, and 
sometimes red-hot iron. These were the only contrivances 
known and practiced by the ancient glaziers. 

In considering the diamond in its relations to the purposes 
of the window-glass cutter, there occur some circumstances 
not unworthy of remark. Amongst these, it may be noticed, 
that the cutting point of the diamond must be a natural one ; 
an artificial point, however perfectly formed, will only scratch 
the glass, not cut it. The diamond of a ring, for instance, 
will not cut a pane, but merely mark it with rough superficial 
lines, which penetrate but a very little way inward. Artificial 
points, corners, or angles, therefore, produced by cutting the 
diamond, are adapted only for writing or for drawing figures 
on glass, and such were those used by Schwanhard, Rost, 
and the other old artists who were celebrated for ornamenting 
glass vessels. The cutting diamond does not write so well 
on glass, from the circumstance of its being apt to enter too 
deeply, and take too firm a hold of the surface, and thus 
become intractable. It may be further noticed, that an 
accidental point produced by fracturing the diamond, is as 
unfit for cutting as an artificial one. Such a point will also 
merely scratch the glass. No point, in short, that is not given 
by the natural formation of the mineral, will answer the pur- 
poses of the window-glass cutter. 

The large sparks, as the diamonds used for cutting glass 
are called, are generally preferred to the small ones, from 
the circumstance of their being hkely to possess (although 
this is by no means invariably the case) a number of cutting 
points ; while the very small sparks are not always found to 
possess more than one. Thus, if the point of the latter is worn 
or broken off, although the spark be turned, and reset in 
its socket, it will still be without the power of cutting, and 
consequently useless ; while the former, on undergoing the ' 
same operation, will present a new and efiective point. 

The large sparks are called mother sparks, and are some- 
times cut down into as many smaller fragments, bearing the 
same name, as there are natural points in them. Each of 
these, therefore, can have only one cutting point, and are 
consequently only proportionately valuable to the glazier, 
since they cannot be restored by resetting. 

The Setting of Diamonds is a process with which every 



Glass — The Cutting Diamond. 233 

glazier ouglit to be acquainted ; nor is it an art of difficult 
acquirement ; some pracrtice, and a little patience, are all 
that is necessary. 

After having selected a stone, as clear and pellucid as pos- 
sible, and of an octahedral shape, or as near to that form as 
it can be procured, the workman proceeds to ascertain which 
is its cutting point, or, if it has more than one, which is the 
best. This will be found to be that point which has the cutting 
edges of the crystal placed exactly at right angles to each 
other, and passing precisely through a point of intersection 
made by the crossing of the edges. 

He then provides a piece of copper or brass wire, a quarter 
of an inch in diameter, having a hole drilled in one of its ends 
large enough to contain three-fourths of the diamond to be 
set. Having temporarily secured the diamond in this hole, 
the setter ascertains the cutting point by trying it on a piece 
of glass ; and when he has discovered it, he marks its position 
by making a slight notch in the wire Avith a file or otherwise, 
exactly opposite to the cutting point, as a guide to him in his 
operations when he comes to fix it permanently in the socket 
head of the handle. When doing this, care is taken to keep 
it exactly parallel with the inclined plane of the socket head. 

The cutting point having been ascertained, and the diamond 
fixed into its place, the wire is then cut off about a quarter 
of an inch below the diamond, and filed down to fit exactly 
into the aperture in the socket head, into which it must be 
soldered. The rough or superfluous metal around the stone 
is removed with a file ; and, lastly, the setting is polished 
with emery or sand-paper. Such is the most approved 
method of setting new diamonds, and it applies equally to 
the resetting of old ones. But in the latter case, the first 
process, that of detaching the stone from its bed, is accom- 
plished either by means of a knife, or by applying the 
blow-pipe. 

The art of managing the diamonds in glass-cutting, so as to 
produce effective results, can only be attained by considerable 
experience. The diamond must be held in a particular po- 
sition, and with a particular inclination, otherwise it will not 
cut, and the slightest deviation from either renders an at- 
tempt to do so abortive. In the hands of an inexperienced 
person it merely scratches the glass, leaving a long rough 



234 Five Black Arts. 

furrow, but no fissure. The glazier judges by his ear of the 
cut made. When the cut is a clean and effective one, the 
diamond produces, in the act of being drawn along, a sharp, 
keen, and equal sound. When the cut is not a good one, 
this sound is harsh, grating, and irregular. On perceiving 
this, the operator alters the inclination and position of his 
diamond, until the proper sound is emitted, when he proceeds 
Avith his cut. 

The diamonds employed in glass-cutting are of the descrip- 
tion known by the technical name of hort^ a classification which 
includes all such pieces as are too small to be cut, or are of 
a bad color, and consequently unfit for ornamental purposes. 
These are accordingly selected from the better sort, and sold 
separately, at an inferior price. 

Though there are many substances that will scratch glass, 
the diamond was thought to be the only one that would cut 
it ; but some Experiments of Dr. Wollaston have shown that 
this is not strictly correct. That eminent philosopher gave 
to pieces of sapphire, ruby, spinel ruby, rock crystal, and 
some other substances, that peculiar curvilinear edge which 
forms the cutting point in the diamond, and in which, and in 
its hardness, its singular property of cutting entirely lies, and 
with these succeeded in cutting glass with a perfectly clear 
fissure. They lasted, however, but for a very short time, 
soon losing their edge, although prepared at a great expense 
of labor and care ; while the diamond comes ready formed 
from the hand of nature, and will last for many years. 

MANUFACTURE OF FLINT-GLASS OR CRYSTAL. 

This branch may be defined the art of forming useful and 
ornamental articles of glass, and is the most ancient depart- 
ment of glass manufacture. The manipulatory processed 
have scarcely been varied and only slightly extended since 
the earliest times. The progress of chemistry has supplied 
purer materials but introduced few new ones. Thus we find 
that baryta has replaced the lead, and soda the potash in 
ancient glass, while in the production of colored glasses purer 
and additional metaUic oxides are used. Yet this art has 
shown less tractability in the hands of the improver than per- 
haps any other industrial art. 



Glass — Flint or Crystal. 235 

The best flint-glass or crystal is composed of silica, potash, 
and lead, the average proportion being one-half sand, one- 
third red lead or litharge, one-sixth carbonate of potash, and 
a little saltpeter, manganese, and white arsenic to correct 
and improve the color or accidental impurities of the other 
materials. For inferior glass, or " tail metal " as it is tech- 
nically called, soda is substituted for potash, and baryta for 
lead or litharge. In still cheaper " metal " for common small 
phials or bottles, a mixture approximating that for window- 
glass is used. For optical purposes the proportion of lead is 
increased to improve the refractive properties, which increase 
in proportion to the density of the medium. The specific 
gravity of the metals varies from about 3-6 to 2-5. 

The furnaces employed are generally circular, and contain 
eight or ten pots. The " found," as the period of melting 
the materials is termed, commences generally on a Friday 
evening. The materials or " batch," and a portion of broken 
glass or " cullet" being mixed together are gradually intro- 
duced into the heated pot. The grate is in the center of the 
furnace, and there are flues at the back of the piers between 
the arches. As the batch melts there is a considerable evo- 
lution of gases, which at length subsides, when the metal 
begins to " fine" and reaches the " crisis." It is then cooled 
until about the consistency of thick honey. The evolution 
of the gases disperses air-bubbles through it ; and the glass- 
maker endeavors so to regulate the heat of the furnace that 
the bubbles may rise to the surface, burst, and leave the metal 
plain and fine, but if the heat be continued beyond the crisis, 
the quality of the metal is deteriorated. For some time after 
the greater part of the gas has escaped, little bells or beads, 
technically called " seeds," rise and are extricated more freely 
by agitation or alteration of temperature. If the metal be- 
comes solid while these bubbles are rising, it retains them, 
and if the " crisis " is not quickly passed, although the seed 
may be overcome by long-continued fusion, yet bad color and 
other defects arise. Strings and striae, which upon close ex- 
amination may be found in nearly all glass, are very common 
and troublesome. They may be caused by improper mixing 
of the materials, separation in the pot of metal of dififerent 
densities, large grains of sand or pieces of refractory clay. 
But as strings and striae in clear ice give pure water when 



236 Five Black Arts. 

melted, so in glass, mechanical rather than chemical means 
must be used for their prevention and cure. For optical 
glass Bontemps has carried out the recommendation of Fara- 
day, and bj systematically stirring the fluid glass has nearly 
reduced the manufacture of optical glass for large lenses to a 
certainty. 

Crystal glass is popularly called colorless, but a practiced 
eye quickly detects color, which is more readily perceptible 
in the mass. It is probable that even pure silica, oxide of 
lead, and carbonate of potash will not produce colorless glass, 
but that there is a color proper to glass as there is to air and 
water. But the main causes of color in crystal are slight im- 
purities, consisting of the oxides of iron or compounds of sul- 
phur or carbon. A large excess of lead gives a yellow color 
— the oxides of iron, orange or olive-green tints, and com- 
pounds of sulphur or carbon, orange or blue. The peroxide 
of iron gives orange of a light tint, compared with the olive- 
green produced by the same quantity of the protoxide of 
iron. The addition of the black oxide of manganese or of 
saltpeter, produces purple, peroxidizes the oxide of iron, 
and, combined, forms what is called white, but practically an 
approach to black, and by a large dose of these materials 
glass of opaque blackness may be produced. Saltpeter also 
peroxidizes the iron, and heightens the color due to manga- 
nese. Purity of materials is essential to success, and oxide, of 
manganese was formerly called glass-makers' soap ; but al- 
though it reduces the color arising from iron, it does not an- 
nihilate it. Glass rendered colorless by manganese becomes 
pink by exposure to the direct rays of the sun, and if too 
much is used in the " batch" the metal is rendered pink, and 
is called high-colored. Glass with too little manganese has 
a " low color." The high color may be reduced by the de- 
oxidizing agency of a pole of wood, with which, in such case, 
the metal is stirred. Some of the high color is lost in the 
annealing, and thick vessels remaining long in the "leir" or 
oven lose more than the light articles which are passed quickly 
through ; therefore to obtain equality of color, the metal for 
thick goods must be highest colored. Arsenious acid is also 
employed as a corrective of color. Sulphur is a powerful 
agent in coloring glass. Sometimes a pot of metal foams 
while melting and is of a dark amber or orange color, which 



Glass — Flint or Crystal. 237 

occasionally it retains when cool, or at other times changes 
to the light blue tint of the common soda-water bottle. Both 
tints are caused by the presence of sulphur, the orange by 
the larger quantity. One part of sulphur to two hundred of 
glass produces a dark color ; hence, by adding a sulphurct 
to the melted metal the tints can be deepened at will. Split- 
gerber shows that glass containing one of sulphur in three 
hundred of glass becomes at a moderate low red heat nearly 
black and opaque, but becomes more transparent at a higher 
temperature. Similar changes are produced by heat on sul- 
phur in its pure state. At its melting-point it is lemon yel- 
low ; at higher temperatures it becomes orange, and gradually 
deepens nearly black, and at a still stronger heat is volatil- 
ized in yellow vapors. Similar results are obtained with 
glass colored by gold, silver, and copper ; glass colored by 
sulphur takes a deeper stain from silver than other glass, but 
if overheated becomes a light greenish-yellow on the reverse, 
and dark chestnut on the obverse, and is rendered useless. 
In Bohemia, glass consisting only of potash, silica, and lime 
is stained of a bright scarlet color by copper : the process is 
not followed in Britain, probably in consequence of British 
glass always containing lead or soda. 

The metallic colors used for flint glass are cobalt for blue ; 
chromium or a mixture of iron and copper for green ; manga- 
nese for purple ; copper for deep scarlet or hght blue ; gold for 
crimson ; antimony or iron for yellow ; uranium for topaz. 
Glass colored by the oxide of uranium exposed in a dark room 
to the dim light of the electric Aurora becomes translucent 
and illuminated throughout, and is partially so when exposed 
to the hydrogen flame. White enamel is obtained by the ad- 
dition of the oxides of arsenic, tin, fluor spar, or phosphate of 
lime, and colored enamels are produced by adding the appro- 
priate metallic oxides. 

In the manipulation of the glass the men are arranged in 
sets of four, called chairs, and there are generally four chairs 
to a furnace. The principal workman of each chair is called 
the gaffer, the second the servitor, the third the foot-maker, 
and a boy completes the set. The wages of these men vary 
(in Great Britain) from 60s. to 20s. per week. The work is 
heavy, and requires such skill and dexterity that few first-class 
workmen are found. The men work in six-hour shifts, there 



238 Five Black Arts. 

being a complete double set. The first operation of the glass- 
blower is to skim the metal, as most impurities float on its 
surface, and this is done Avith an iron rod heated at its extrem- 
ity and dipped into the metal, a little of which adheres. 
This is flattened on an iron plate and repeatedly introduced, 
gradually growing larger until it gathers and removes all the 
floating matter from the surface of the metal. The operation 
of making crystal articles then goes on as follows. 

An iron tube is heated at the end and dipped into the 
semi-fluid metal, a portion of which is collected, withdrawn 
from the pot, and then rolled on an iron plate called 
tly3 marver, until it has acquired a circular shape. The 
marver also equalizes the heat of the gathering, which the 
iron tube cools and stiffens, and which requires to be equally 
ductile in all its parts. The servitor now prepares a post, as 
a flattened round hot lump of metal on a punty or iron rod 
is called, and applies it to the end of the globe. The two 
masses of glass are thus united together, and that attached to 
the hollow tube is separated by touching it, near to where the 
tube enters the globe, with a small piece of iron wetted with 
water. By this means the glass cracks, and a smart blow on 
the iron tube completes the disunion. The workman now takes 
the punty from his assistant, and laying it on his chair 
arm, rolls it backward and forward with his left arm, while 
with his right he moulds it into the various shapes required, 
by means of a very few simple instruments. By one of these 
called a procello, the blades of which are attached by an 
elastic bow like a pair of sugar tongs, the dimensions of the 
vessel can be enlarged or contracted at pleasure. Any super- 
fluous material is cut away by a pair of scissors. For smooth- 
ing and equalizing the sides of the vessel a piece of wood is used. 
After the article is finished it is detached from the punty and 
carried on a pronged stick to the annealing oven or leir. 

For a fluted or ribbed cane, as a solid glass rod is techni- 
cally called, the metal is forced into a mould of the requisite 
shape and then withdrawn ; after which, if attached to an- 
other ^os^ and the two punties be twisted and drawn in oppo- 
site directions, the ribs become spiral lines, which become 
more acute as the drawing is extended. Venetian filigree 
work is produced in this way ; and if in the hollow flutes of 
the mould colored glass or enamels are inserted, and the gath- 



Glass — Flint or Crystal. 239 

ering introduced, the colored glass or enamels are welded 
to and withdrawn with it. When again heated, and twisted 
or drawn, these streaks of color or enamel become spiral, and 
ornament the surface. If before being drawn the mass be 
redipped into the pot of crystal glass and then twisted, the 
spiral lines of color or enamel become internal. By the rep- 
etition of this process spirals can be formed within spirals, 
and by placing these filigree canes side by side and welding 
them together, very curious and intricate patterns are ob- 
tained/ By the ordinary process of blowing, vessels are form- 
ed with smooth and concentric interior and exterior surfaces, 
and do not exhibit the brilliancy of the crystal so much as 
when it has numerous inequalities. The most brilliant effect 
is produced by cutting, but moulding is much cheaper, and 
this branch of the art has now reached a high state of excel- 
lence. The moulds are gencralfy of iron highly polished, and 
kept a little below a red heat. The surface of the metal is 
injured by contact with the mould, but its transparency is re- 
stored by being reheated. A very exact regulation of the 
temperature is necessary in reheating fine moul ings ; too 
little heat does not give the "fire polish," too much softens the 
metal and obliterates the mouldings. The moulds for pressed 
goods are made in pieces so hinged or connected as to close 
and leave a vacuity, the form of the article required, the hol- 
low in which is not however produced by blowing but by the 
plunger of the press under which the mould is placed. Q'he 
required quantity of metal is then dropt in, when the plunger 
descends and forces it into all parts of the cavity, completing 
the formation of the article, which is then stuck to a punty, 
and fire-polished and annealed. 

What is called cased glass is crystal covered with coats of 
colored glass. It is thus obtained. The gathering of crys- 
tal is thrust into a colored or enameled shell, which is previ- 
ously prepared. The welding is completed by reheating"; 
and two or more coats of diOerent colors or enamels may 
thus be employed. When cut through to the crystal in vari- 
ous figures, the edges of the different colors on enamels are 
seen. 

The Venetian frosted glass is obtained by immersing the 
hot metal, gathering in cold water, quickly witlidrawing it, 
reheating and expanding it by blowing, before it becomes so 



240 Five Black Arts. 

hot as to weld together the numerous cracks on the surface 
caused by the cold water. These cracks only penetrate 
where the metal has been cooled by the water, and remain 
as depressions until the article is finished. 

Venetian vitro-di-trono consists of spiral lines of enamels 
or colors, crossing each other diamond-wise, in the body of 
the glass, and inclosing an air-bubble in the center of each 
diamond. It is thus formed : a gathering is blown in the 
mould with the necessary canes twisted and blown out as 
formerly described for spiral filigree, the canes being left 
projecting from the outside like ribs or flutes. A similar 
piece is made and turned inside out. The projecting canes 
on this piece are on the inside, and the spiral lines reversed. 
The one piece is then placed under the other, and both are 
welded together. The ribs or flutes projecting from the two 
surfaces in contact inclose air in the diamonds, which gradually 
assumes the bubble shape. The vessel is then formed in the 
ordinary manner. The most beautiful regularity of lines is 
thus obtained ; and when the ends are closed by the procellos, 
the lines are drawn to a center as regularly arranged as 
if they had been turned in an engine. 

Incrustations are formed by placing the substance to be 
incased on the surface of the article and dropping melted 
metal on it, or by preparing an open tube of glass, inserting 
the object, and welding the open end. By suction instead 
of blowing, the metal is collapsed on the object, and the air 
withdrawn. From the unequal contraction between the ob- 
ject and the crystal by which it is surrounded there is much 
difficulty in the annealing, and to avoid the risk of breakage 
the object should be made of materials expanding and con- 
tracting like the glass itself. 

The round, heavy paper weights containing various ornar 
ments apparently in the body of the metal are made as 
follows: Canes are made to the required pattern — say, for 
example, a star within a tube. A gathering of white enamel 
is formed in a star-shaped mould, and coated with crystal. 
After this is marvered, it is dipped into a colored enamel, and 
drawn out into a cane ; and if this is covered with crystal, 
the eye cannot detect the junction of the external crystal with 
that of the cane, but the enamel casing will appear as a tube 
with the star standing in the center. Devices of numerous 



Glass — Bottle. 2-11 

kinds are thus made in canes, and then welded together. 
The end is then ground, and after being heated and incased 
in crystal, the lens-like shape of the paper weights adds to 
the effect by magnifying the incrusted canes. 

The light-refracting properties of crystal are best shown 
by cutting and polishing. Stones of various textures, or 
wood, sand, or emery, in water, are used with the metal mills, 
water only with the stones, and pumice-stone and putty-pow- 
der with the wood for smoothing and polishing. The articles 
are held in the hand, and applied to the mill while rotating. 
The punty marks are ground off tumblers, wine-glasses, and 
such like, by boys holding them on small stone mills. Ground 
or frosted glass is made by rubbing the surface with sand and 
water. Iron tools fixed on a lathe and moistened with sand 
and water are used to rough out the stoppers and necks of 
bottles, which are completed by hand with emery and water. 
The neighborhood of the coal-fields is of course the chief 
seat of the manufacture, and probably the best crystal of 
Great Britain is now made in Manchester. 

BOTTLE-GLASS. 

The common green or bottle-glass is made of the coarsest 
materials ; sand, lime, sometimes clay, any kind of alkali of 
alkaline ashes, whose cheapness may recommend it to the 
manufacturer, and sometimes the vitreous slag produced from 
the fusion of iron ore. The mixture most commonly used 
is soap maker's waste, in the proportion of three measures to 
one measure of sand. The green color of this glass is occa- 
sioned by the existence of a portion of iron in the sand, and, 
it may be, also in the vegetable ashes of which it is composed. 

When castor-oil or champagne bottles are wanted, a por- 
tion of crown-glass cullet is added, to improve the color. 
The impurity of the alkali, and the abundance of fluxing 
materials of an earthy nature, combined with the intense 
heat to which they are subjected, occasion the existence of 
but a very small proportion of real saline matter in the glass, 
and thereby render it better than flint-glass for holding fluids 
possessing corrosive properties. 

The soap-maker's waste is generally calcined in two coarse 
arches, which are kept at a strong red heat from twenty-four 
16 



242 Five Black Arts. 

to thirty hours, the time required to roelt the materials and 
work them into glass, -which is termed a journey. After the 
soap-maker's waste is taken out of the arch, it is ground and 
mixed with sand in the proportions already mentioned. This 
mixture is put into the fine arches, and again calcined during 
the working journey, which occupies ten or twelve hours 
more. "When the journey is over, the pots are again filled 
with the red-hot materials out of the fine calcining arch. 
Six hours are required to melt this additional quantity of 
materials. The pots are again filled up, and in about four 
hours this filling is also melted. The furnace is then kept at 
the highest possible degree of heat, and in the course of from 
twelve to sixteen hours, according as the experience of the 
founder may determine, the materials in the pots are formed 
into a liquid glass fit for making bottles. The furnace is now 
checked by closing the doors of the cave, and the metal cool- 
ing, it becomes more dense, and all the extraneous matter 
not formed into glass floats upon the top. Before beginning 
to work, this is skimmed off in the way already described in 
our account of crown-glass making. A sufficient quantity 
of coals is added at intervals, to keep the furnace at a work- 
ing heat till the journey is finished. 

After the pots have been skimmed the person who begins 
the work is the gatherer, who, after heating the pipe, gathers 
on it a small quantity of metal. After allowing this to cool 
a little, he again gathers such a quantity as he conceives to 
be suflicient to make a bottle. This is then handed to the 
blower, who, while blowing through the tube, rolls the metal 
upon a stone, at the same time turning the neck of the bottle. 
He then puts the metal into a brass or cast-iron mould of the 
shape of the bottle wanted, and, continuing to blow through 
the tube, brings it to the desired form. The patent mould 
now in use is made of brass, the inside finely polished, divided 
into two pieces, which the workman, by pressing a spring 
with his foot, opens and shuts at pleasure. The blower then 
hands it to the finisher, who touches the neck of the bottle 
with a small piece of iron dipped in water, which cuts it 
completely off from the pipe. He next attaches the punty, 
which is a little metal gathering from the pot, to the bottom 
of the bottle, and thereby gives it the shape which it usually pre- 
sents. This punty may be used for from eighteen to twenty- 



Glass — Bottle. 243 

four dozen of bottles. It is occasionally dipped into sand to 
prevent its adhering to the bottle. The finisher then warms 
the bottle at the furnace, and taking a small quantity of metal 
on what is termed a ring iron, he turns it once round the 
mouth, forming the ring seen at the mouth of bottles. He 
then employs the shears to give shape to the neck. One of 
the blades of the shears has a piece of brass in the center, 
tapered like a common cork, which forms the inside mouth ; 
to the other is attached a piece of brass, used to form the 
ring. The bottle is then lifted by the neck on a fork by a 
little fellow about ten years of age, and carried to the an- 
nealing arch, where the bottles are placed in bins, above one 
another. This arch is kept a little below melting heat, till 
the whole quantity, which amounts to ten or twelve gross in 
each arch, is deposited, when the fire is allowed to die out. 



HISTORY ^ 

AND 

PROCESS OF MAKING GAS-LIGHT. 



GAS-LIGHT. 



Light, whether obtained from natural or artificial sources, 
is so necessary for the correct and successful execution of 
almost every operation of human industry, that whatever is 
calculated to simplify the means of procuring it, or to in- 
crease its intensity, cannot fail to be attended with the most 
beneficial consequences to civilized society. For every pur- 
pose to which it is applied, it must be admitted that the light 
of day, when it can be enjoyed freely and without interrup- 
tion, is by far the most suitable ; but in large and crowded 
cities, as well as in situations less favorable in point of climate, 
where the sun is sometimes shrouded for days together in 
dense and impenetrable clouds, it becomes expedient to com- 
pensate for the absence of his rays by artificial substitutes, 
which, however inferior in brilliancy and general usefulness, 
may nevertheless answer sufficiently well in those cases where 
a less ample supply of light is requisite. 

Some substances, denominated phosphorescent, have the 
property of absorbing the solar rays, on being exposed for a 
short time to their influence, and of emitting the light which 
they thus imbibe when they are afterward placed in the 
dark ; but the feeble and transient illumination which they 
shed, though sufficient to indicate their luminous condition, is 
totally unfit to afford such a supply of light as is necessary 
for conducting any of the operations of art, which require 
care and precision for their performance. 

There are, however, a variety of inflammable substances, 
both of animal and vegetable origin, which, during the process 
of combustion, give out light as well as heat ; and hence, 
from the earliest periods of human society, it has been 
customary to burn substances of that description for the pur- 



248 Five Black Arts. 

pose of obtaining artificial light. These substances, which 
were generally of a fatty or oleaginous nature, are composed 
chiefly of carbon and hydrogen. When they are exposed to 
a certain high temperature, they are resolved into some of 
the compound gases which result from the union of these ele- 
ments, particularly carburetted, and bi-carburetted hydrogen, 
or defiant gas, both of which are highly inflammable, and 
yield, during their combustion, a fine white light. In order 
to facilitate the decomposition, and to carry on the combus- 
tion with due economy, a quantity of some fibrous substance, in 
the form of a wick, is connected with the oleaginous matter, 
for the purpose of causing it to burn slowly and effectually. 
Accordingly, if the flame be suddenly extinguished, the in- 
flammable gas which is formed by the decomposition of the 
matter in immediate contact with the wick is observed to 
escape from it, and may be again set on fire by the applica- 
tion of a lighted taper. 

When it is required to convey from place to place the light 
obtained from these substances, no arrangement is found to 
be more convenient for their decomposition than that which 
is effected by means of the wick ; but if the light is to re- 
main in a permanent position, it will frequently be more ad- 
vantageous to resolve the oleaginous matter into gas, and then 
to transmit it, in that state, through pipes, to the various 
points where it is to be consumed. 

Although the different substances which have been used 
from the earliest times for yielding artificial light have always 
been actually resolved into gas before they underwent the 
process of combustion, that fact was entirely unknown until 
pneumatic chemistry unfolded the properties of the aerial 
bodies, which perform so many important functions in the 
economy of nature, as well as in the processes of the arts.* 
It was then discovered that hydrogen, one of the component 
parts of water, was a highly inflammable gas, capable of 
being produced under a great variety of circumstances : from 
vegetable matter decaying in stagnant water, forming what 
is called light carburetted hydrogen, a stream of which, when 
ignited, produces the natural phenomenon known as " ignis- 
fatuus, or Will-o'-the-Wisp :" from coal, oils, and fatty sub- 
stances, when, in combination with larger proportions of 
carbon, it forms gases of high illuminating powers. The use 



Gas — Manufacture. 249 

of gas for the purpose of illumination is therefore of recent 
date ; but although late in its origin, the successive improve- 
menti:5 which the invention has received, and continues to re- 
ceive, from the joint labors of chemists and practical engi- 
neers, have tended greatly to simplify the processes for 
producing the gas, and for improving its quality and means of 
distribution. 

In many parts of the world there are certain deposits of 
petroleum or naphtha which furnish gaseous matter ; and 
this issuing from some fissure in the earth, becomes ignited 
by lightning or some other cause, and continues to burn for 
a long period. Such a flame is regarded by an ignorant 
people with superstitious reverence, and has been sufficient to 
found a religious sect of fire-worshipers. Deposits of coal, 
or of bituminous schist, sometimes furnish the gaseous matter 
for such flames. The practical Chinese, about thirty miles 
from Pekin, are said to make use of this gas in the boiling 
and evaporating of salt brine, and for lighting their streets 
and houses.* " Burning fountains," as they are sometimes 
called, are not uncommon, and their origin is the same. In 
1851, in boring for water on Chat Moss, on the line of rail- 
way between Manchester and Liverpool, a stream of gas 
suddenly issued up the bore, floated along the surface of the 
ground, and caught fire on the application of flame. A pipe 
was inserted into the bore, and a flame eight or nine feet long 
was thus produced. 

In 1667, Mr. Shirley describes in the Philosophical Trans- 
actions of the Royal Society a burning spring in the coal dis- 
trict of Wigan in Lancashire : he traced its origin to the un- 
derlying beds of coal. In 1726, Dr. Hales, in his work on 
Vegetable Statics, gives an experiment on the distillation of 
coal, by which it appears that 158 grains of Newcastle coal 
yielded 180 cubic inches of inflammable air. In 1733, Sir 
James Lowther sent to the Royal Society specimens of in- 
flammable air from a coal-mine near Whitehaven. The gas 
was collected in bladders, and a number of experiments were 
tried on it. 

It appears, however, that the Rev. John Clayton had per- 
formed some experiments on the distillation of coal some 
years previous to the publication of Dr. Hales's book ; but 

* So do the practical Americans. 



250 Five Black Arts. 

he did not publish an account of them until 1739, and this 
account consists of an extract from a letter written bj Clay- 
ton to the Hon. Robt. Boyle, who died in 1691, and was 
probably written sometime before this year. It is inserted in 
the Transactions of the Royal Society for the year 1739 ; 
and is probably the earhest evidence of the possibility of ex- 
tracting from coal, by means of heat, a permanently elastic 
fluid of an inflammable nature. We shall therefore give the 
account of the discovery in his own words : Having introduced 
a quantity of coal into a retort, and placed it over an open 
fire, he states that " at first there came over only phlegm, 
afterward a black oil, and then likewise a spirit arose which 
I could noways condense ; but it forced my lute, or broke my 
glasses. Once when it had forced my lute, coming close 
thereto in order to try to repair it, I observed that the spirit 
which issued out caught fire at the flame of the candle, and 
continued burning with violence as it issued out in a stream, 
which I blew out and lighted again alternately for several 
times. I then had a mind to try if I could save any of this 
spirit ; in order to which I took a turbinated receiver, and 
putting a candle to the pipe of the receiver whilst the spirit 
arose, I observed that it catched flame, and continued burn- 
ing at the end of the pipe, though you could not discern what 
fed the flame. I then blew it out and lighted it again several 
times ; after which I fixed a bladder, squeezed and void of 
air, to the pipe of the receiver. The oil and phlegm descend- 
ed into the receiver, but the spirit still ascending, blew up 
the bladder. I then filled a good many bladders therewith, 
and might have filled an inconceivable number more ; for the 
spirit continued to rise for several hours, and filled the blad- 
ders almost as fast as a man could have blown them with his 
mouth ; and yet the quantity of coals I distilled were incon- 
siderable. 

" I kept this spirit in the bladders a considerable time, and 
endeavored several ways to condense it, but in vain. And 
when I had a mind to divert strangers or friends, I have fre- 
quently taken one of these bladders, and pricking a hole 
therein with a pin, and compressing gently the bladder near 
the flame of a candle till it once took fire, it would then con- 
tinue flaming till all the spirit was compressed out of the 
bladder; which was the more surprising because no one 



Gas — Manufacture. 251 

could descern any difference in the appearance between these 
bladders and those which are filled with common air." * 

It is evident from this narrative, related with so much sim- 
plicity, that an accident which happened to Mr. Clayton's 
apparatus was the means of leading to the discovery of coal- 
gas ; but it does not appear that he or any other individual 
thought of applying the discovery to any practical purpose 
until the year 1792, when Mr. Murdock, who then resided 
at Redruth, in Cornwall, commenced a series of experiments 
upon the properties of the gases contained in different sub- 
stances. In the course of his researches he found that the 
gas obtained by the distillation from coal, peat, wood, and 
other inflammable substances, yielded a fine bright light during 
its combustion ; and it occured to him, that by confining it in 
proper vessels and afterward expelling it through pipes, it 
might be employed as a convenient and economical substiute 
for lamps and candles. 

Mr. Murdoch's attention to the subject having been inter- 
rupted for some time by his professional avocations, he re- 
sumed the consideration of it in 1797, when he exhibited 
publicly the results of his more mature plans for the prepa- 
ration of coal-gas. The following year (being then connected 
with Messrs. Boulton and Watt's engineering workshop), he 
constructed an apparatus at the Soho foundery for lighting 
that establishment, with suitable arrangements for the puri- 
fication of the gas ; and these experiments. Dr. Henry states, 
" were continued with occasional interruptions until the epoch 
of the peace in 1802, when the illumination of the Soho man- 
ufactory afforded an opportunity of making a public display 
of the new lights ; and they were made to constitute a prin- 
cipal feature in that exhibition." 

In this brief sketch of the progress of gas-lighting, it may 
be noticed that the Lyceum theater in London was lighted with 
gas in the course of the years 1803-4, under the direction of 
Mr. Winsor, who is entitled to no small commendation for the 
warm interest which he took in drawing the public attention to 
the subject ; and in 1804-5 Mr. Murdoch had an opportunity 
of carrying his plans into effect on a still larger scale, by means 
of the apparatus erected under his superintendence, in the ex- 

* Mr. Clayton also alludes to the discovery of the gas which he obtained 
from coal, in a letter to the Royal Society, dated May 12, 1688. 



252 Five Black Arts. 

tensive cotton mills of Messrs. Philips and Son of Manches- 
ter. 

It has been alleged that gas-lights? were used in France 
before they were known in this country ; but as the earliest 
exhibition of these lights, on which the claim of priority of 
discovery is founded, took place at Paris in 1802, it is evi- 
dent, from the foregoing statements, that the exhibition allu- 
ded to was ten years subsequent to the first experiments of 
Mr. Murdoch on the subject. 

The practicability of lighting by means of coal-gas having 
been demonstrated by Mr. Murdoch, a number of scientific 
men applied their talents to the further development of the 
art. Dr. Henry, the celebrated chemist, lectured on the 
subject in 1804 and 1805, and furnished many hints for the 
improvement of the manufacture. Mr. Clegg, an engineer 
in the employment of Boulton and Watt, was a worthy suc- 
cessor of Murdoch, and for many years was the most eminent 
gas-engineer of this country. A good deal of the machinery 
of the gas-house in its present form was contrived by Mr. 
Clegg, and to him also we are indebted for the ingenious wet 
gas-meter. In 1813 Westminster bridge was first lighted with 
gas, and in the following year the streets of Westminster 
were thus ligbted, and in 1816 gas became common in Lon- 
don. So rapid was the progress of this new mode of illumi- 
nation, that in the course of a few years after it was first in- 
troduced, it was adopted by all the principal towns in the 
kingdom, for lighting streets as well as shops and public edi- 
fices. In private houses it found its way more slowly, partly 
from an apprehension, not entirely groundless, of the danger 
attending the use of it ; and partly, from the annoyance 
which was experienced in many cases, through the careless 
and imperfect manner in which the service-pipes were at first 
fitted up. These inconveniences have been in a great meas- 
ure, if not wholly, removed by a more enlarged knowledge 
of the management of gas ; and at present there are few 
private houses in large towns which are not either partially 
or entirely lighted up by it. As the demand for gas in- 
creased, various improvements were from time to time intro- 
duced both in the mechanical arrangements, and in the chem- 
ical operations of the manufacture. The rapid increase in 
the population of the metropolis, and of all large towns, has 



Gas — Manufacture. 253 

naturally led to an increased consumption of gas, and the 
application of gas to the purposes of warming and cooking 
has also further increased the demand for it. Hence it has 
been not only necessary that new gas-works should be erect- 
ed, for the supply of new districts, but that the resources of 
old works should be enlarged. It is only a few years ago 
that a gas-holder capable of storing 250,000 cubic feet of 
gas was regarded as of enormous size ; at the present time, 
gas-holders are made of double that capacity, and we occa- 
sionally hear of them of the capacity of upward of a million 
cubic feet. There is one such at Philadelphia ; it is 140 
feet in diameter and 70 feet in height. Nor will such di- 
mensions as these be regarded as superfluous when it is stated 
that some of the large metropolitan works send out each from 
a million to a million and a half cubic feet of gas in one night 
in mid-winter.* The Westminster gas-works alone are ac- 
customed to supply as much as five millions cubic feet of gas 
in one night from their three stations. 

Of the Site and general Arrangement of the Apparatus for 
the Production and Purification of Coal- Gas. 

In describing the site and general arrangements of a gas 
establishment, it is not easy to give directions respecting 
points which must be regulated in every case by circumstan- 
ces of a local nature ; but when a choice of ground is in our 
power, a spot ought to be selected having a central situation 

* A few years ago Mr. Hume, in the House of Commons, moved for a 
return, which has been published under the following title : — " Return or 
statement from every gas company established by act of parliament in the 
United Kingdom, stating the several acts of parliament under which estab- 
lished, the rates per 1000 cubic feet at which each company or corporation 
have supplied gas in each of the three years since 1846 to 1849, and the 
average prices of the coals used by the company in each year for the same 
period ; also stating the amount of fixed capital invested by each gas com- 
pany, and the rate per cent, of dividend to the shareholders or proprietors 
on their shares in each year since that date (in continuation of Pai'liament- 
ary Paper No. 734 of Session 1847)." It appears from this document that 
the fifteen companies in London charged at the rate of 6s. per 1000 cubic 
feet of gas, with the exception of the City of London Company, which 
charged only 4s. with coals at 15s. 9d. per ton. The highest rate is 10s. 
per 1000 feet, charged at Inverness, with coals at 24s. id. per ton. Bury 
yt. Edmunds charged Ss. 4d., with coals at 10s. 6d. Birmingham has rates 
of 6s. and 3s. 4^d., with coals at 15s. per ton. 



254 Five Black Arts. 

with regard to the buildings, streets, etc., which are to be 
supplied with light, and standing as nearly as possible on a 
medium level with them. When the manufactory is placed 
considerably below that level, the gas is apt to be propelled 
with too much velocity through the burners ; and when 
above it, an opposite inconvenience is experienced, the gas 
being in that case necessarily subjected to an extra pressure, 
by which the chance of its escape through any imperfection 
of the pipes is proportionally increased. Of the two evils, 
therefore, the least objectionable is that in which the situa- 
tion of a gas-work is below the mean level of the streets. 

But besides the conditions favorable to an equable and uni- 
form distribution of the gas at the different points to which 
it may be conducted, there are other considerations scarcely 
less important, which in selecting a proper site for the erection 
of the establishment ought not to be disregarded. Among these 
may be reckoned a regular supply of water for the various 
manipulations of the work ; and facility of access for the 
delivery of coal and the removal of the coke, tar and other pro- 
ducts of the distillation. Railways are now so common that 
they are often as valuable to a gas-work as the vicinity of 
navigable water. In the Central Gas-consumer's works at 
Bow Common, which were laid out under the skillful scientific 
direction of Mr. Croll, a branch railway is connected with 
the lines which supply the coal, and is actually continued 
into the retort-house, so that the coal wagons only arrive at 
their final destination at the mouths of the retorts which are 
to be fed. But in fixing the situation of an establishment 
which is professedly erected for the public benefit, the comfort 
or the interest of individuals ought not to be entirely over- 
looked ; for although a gas-work may not prove, under proper 
management, a nuisance, it can never be considered to be 
any advantage to the neighborhood in which it is placed. 

The apparatus for the production and purification of coal- 
gas consists, in the first place, of suitable vessels for decom- 
posing by heat the coal from which the gas is to be procured ; 
secondly, of a series of pipes for conveying off the gas, and 
conducting it into proper receptacles, where it may be sepa- 
rated from the grosser products, which tend to impair the 
brilliancy of the light ; thirdly, of the condensing apparatus, 
for removing more effectually the tar and other condensable 



Gas — Manufacture. 255 

substances that come over with the gas ; fourthly, of the pu- 
rifying apparatus, for abstracting the sulphuretted hydrogen, 
carbonic acid, etc., by which the gas is contaminated, and 
which if allowed to remain, would be injurious to the gas-fit- 
tings, to the books and furniture of rooms, or to the health 
of the consumer; and, fifthly, of the gasometer or gas-holder, 
with its tank, into which the gas is finally received in a puri- 
fied state. 

Of the Retorts, or Vessels for decomposing the Coal. 

The vessels employed for the decomposition of coal and 
other substances capable of yielding carburetted hydrogen, 
by their destructive distillation, are formed of cast-iron, of 
clay, of brick, or of wrought iron, and are termed retorts. 
Various shapes have been adopted in the construction of these 
vessels ; nor have their forms been more varied than the 
modes in which they have been disposed in the furnaces 
erected for their reception. In many instances they have 
been constructed of a cylindrical shape, varying in length 
and diameter. Those first employed were placed with their 
axis in a vertical direction ; but experience soon showed that 
this position was extremely inconvenient, on account of the 
difficulty which it occasioned in removing the coke, and other 
residuary matters, after the coal had been carbonized. At- 
tempts were made to remedy this inconvenience, by enlarging 
the size of the retort, and introducing the coal inclosed in a 
proper grating of iron, having the form of a cage. The in- 
creased dimensions of the retort, from which the principal 
advantage to be derived from this arrangement was expected, 
were found, however, to present great obstacles to the com- 
plete carbonization of the coal ; for although the disengage- 
ment of gas during the first stages of the process was suffi- 
ciently copious, it diminished rapidly the longer the distillation 
was continued, in consequence of a crust of coke being formed 
next to the heated metal, which not only opposed the trans- 
mission of the heat to the internal mass of coal, but gradually 
prevented, by its accumulation, the extrication of the gas from 
the undecomposed portion of it. 

The retorts were, therefore, next placed in a horizontal 
position, as being not only more favorable to the most econom- 



256 Five Black Arts. 

ical distribution of the heat, but better adapted to the intro- 
duction of the coal, and the subsequent removal of the coke, 
after the carbonization was carried to a due extent. At first 
the heat was apphed directly to the lower part of the retort, 
but it was soon observed that the high temperature to which 
it was necessary to expose it, for the perfect decomposition of 
the coal, proved destructive to it, and rendered it useless long 
before the upper part had sustained much injury. The next 
improvement was, accordingly, to interpose an arch of brick- 
work between it and the furnace, and to compensate for the 
diminished intensity of the heat by a more diflFused distribu- 
tion of it over the surface of the retort. This was effected 
by causing the flue of the furnace to return toward the mouth 
of the retort, and again conducting it in an opposite direction, 
till the heated air finally escaped into the chimmey. 

This arrangement continued for a long time in use, and 
seemed to admit of little improvement, unless with respect to 
the shape and dimensions of the retorts. The cylindrical 
form has the advantage of possessing great durability, but 
it is not so well fitted for rapid decomposition of the coal (on 
which depends much of the good qualities of the gas) as 
the elliptical shape. Flat-bottomed or D-shaped retorts 
have also been long in use : the small London D is about 12 
inches wide by 12J inches deep, while the York D varies 
from 20 to 30 inches in width, and from 9 to 14 inches in 
height. Retorts are also made of a rectangular section, with 
the corners rounded and the roof arched. Elliptical retorts 
are varied into what are called ear-shaped or kidney- shaped, 
and it is not unusual to set retorts of different forms in the 
same bench, for the convenience of filling up the branches of 
the arch which incloses them. The length of retorts former- 
ly varied from 6 to 9 feet ; they are now in some cases made 
19J feet in length and 12i 
are charged at both ends. 

Iron retorts of from 6 to 9 feet in length carry a charge 
of from 120 to 200 lbs. of coal, which is usually renewed 
every six hours. Instead of the old method of charging with 
the shovel, which occupies at least half an hour, and entailed 
a great loss of gas, the whole charge is now deposited in an 
iron scoop, with a cross handle at the end, and it is lifted by 
three men, pushed into the retort, turned over, and the whole 



Gas — Manufacture. 257 

charge deposited at once, a contrivance which does not occupy 
more than 30 or 40 seconds. Indeed it is not uncommon for 
a bench of 7 retorts to be emptied p-nd recharged in the brief 
space of 20 minutes. When square-backed retorts are used, 
the backs are apt to wear much more quickly than anv other 
part, in consequence of the fierce heat which plays upon them ; 
it is therefore sometimes usual to throw in a few shovelfuls 
of coal to the extreme end before depositing the charge with 
the scoop. This occupies more time in charging, but it has 
the effect of preserving the backs. The objection does not 
apply to retorts with circular ends. 

Every retort is furnished with a separate mouth-piece, 
usually of cast-iron, with a socket for receiving the stand- 
pipe, and there is a movable lid attached to the mouth, to- 
gether with an ear-box cast on each side of the retort for re- 
ceiving the ears which support the lid. The ears hold a 
crossbar through which is passed a screw which presses on 
the lid, and secures it to the mouth-piece. That part of the 
lid which comes in contact with the edge of the mouth-piece 
has applied to it a lute of lime mortar and fire-clay, and 
when the lid is screwed up, a portion of this lute oozes out 
round the edges and forms a gas-tight joint. 

In some cases tlie screw is got rid of by a more expeditious 
contrivance, in which the ears support an axis, which carries 
a lever formed at one end into a sort of cam, and bearing at 
the other end a ball of cast-iron about 4 inches in diameter. 
On lowering this ball the cam presses with great force against 
the back of the lid, and holds it securely ; and if more force 
be required, a weight can be attached to the iron ball. 

In attaching a mouth-piece to a clay retort, the end is 
notched with grooves for the purpose of holding the binding 
cement more securely. The mouth-piece is attached by 
means of bolts with T heads let into the body of the retort 
Iron cement is used, in which fire-clay takes the place of 
sulphur ; this being spread over the joint, the mouth-piece is 
attached and screwed up. 

The temperature best suited for the production of gas from 

coal, being what the workmen term a bright red, was found 

to be very destructive to the retorts when they were exposed 

to the direct action of the fuel ; and accordingly means were 

17 



258 Five Black Arts. 

employed to protect them from the rapid oxidation which they 
suffered under these circumstances, by interposing between 
them and the furnace a partition of fire tiles or arched bricks, 
with side flues for the admission of the heated air. 

With the view of occupying less room, and saving the ex- 
pense of fuel, several retorts are sometimes set together in 
an oven of brickwork, and heated by a smaller number of fur- 
naces than there are retorts. By this arrangement the fuel 
is certainly economized, but the plan is liable to the objection, 
that when any one of the retorts is worn out, those connect- 
ed with it cannot be used till the faulty one is replaced ; and 
though various expedients have been proposed for obviating 
that inconvenience, none of them can be said to have effect- 
ually answered the purpose. 

The fuel required for carbonizing a given quantity of coal 
may be stated to be, in general, from one-third to one-fourth 
of its weight for Newcastle coal. It is stated, that under 
Mr. CroU's method of setting, the carbonization is carried on 
by the combustion of only 12 per cent, of fuel, or that 100 
tons of coal are carbonized by 12 tons of coke. 

Various attempts have been made to render the retorts 
more independent of the laborers. In Mr. Brunton's retort, 
a hopper containing the charge of coal is attached to the 
mouth-piece. The charge is introduced by removing a slide, 
and a piston is then advanced for the purpose of pushing for- 
ward the coal, and ejecting the coke, the latter falling through 
a shoot at the further end of the retort, and thence into a 
cistern of water into which the lower end of the shoot dips. 
This retort is not of equal section throughout : it is 15 inches 
in diameter at the mouth, and 21 inches at the other end, 
the length being 4J feet. The advantages of this arrange- 
ment, independently of the saving of labor, are said to be 
an increased production of gas, and a consequent diminution 
in the amount of tar, naptha, and ammoniacal liquor, this di- 
minution being stated at 50 per cent, less than the ordinary 
yield of those secondary products. Moreover, a good deal 
of bituminous vapor, and minutely divided carbon, which, 
under the usual arrangement, go to swell the increase of tar, 
become decomposed under the higher temperature of Mr. 
Brunton's retorts bypassing over the red-hot coke, and form- 
ing illuminating gas. Indeed, it is now generally admitted 



Gas — Manufacture. 259 

as an axiom in gas-making, that the most productive yield of 
gas is under a high temperature ; for it is possible under low 
heats to distil oflF the volatile parts of the coal as bituminous 
vapor only, without any production of carburetted hydrogen 
gas. By exposing the coal in a thin layer to a very high heat, 
the distillation is effected most rapidly and most profitably. 
Mr. Clegg describes a retort into which the coal is introduced 
by means of an endless web formed of iron plates, each 2 
feet long, and 14 inches wide, and linked together by iron 
rods. The coal, broken small, is placed in a hopper, to which 
is attached a feeder with six radial projections. Each of the 
six partitions thus formed supplies sufficient coal to cover one 
plate of the web, with about 120 cubic inches of coal to the 
depth of f ths of an inch. The hopper, which contains 24 
hours' charge of coal, is luted after each charge. The end- 
less web is moved by passing over drums, one revolution of 
which every 15 minutes conveys the web through the retort, 
and effects the distillation of the coal. The coal is carried 
on the upper surface of the web, and as the web turns over 
the second drum the coke is discharged by a pipe into a ves- 
sel below, and the empty portion of the web returns to the 
hopper, and passing over the surface of the first drum re- 
ceives another charge. The charge is so regulated, that about 
100 square inches of heated surface in the retort is allowed 
for every pound of coal, which is said to yield 5"36 cubic feet 
of gas, or 12,000 cubic feet per ton of Wallsend coal. The 
charge for each retort is about 18 cwt. of coal for 24 hours, or 
about double the quantity under the old plan in retorts of 
similar dimensions. The coke is also said to be in much 
greater quantity. In the course of time the plates of the 
iron web become converted into steel, the value of which is 
sufficient for the purchase of a new web. Mr. Lowe has also 
introduced an arrangement for increasing the yield of gas by 
making the products of a new change pass over the portion 
of the retort which is already at a red heat. For this pur- 
pose the reciprocating retort^ as it is called, is made of thrice 
the usual length, and is charged at both ends ; but the dip 
pipe at one end is made to enter to a greater depth into the 
tar of the hydraulic main than at the other end ; so that 
supposing both the dip pipes to be open, the products of dis- 
tillation will of course be discharged into the main by the 



260 Five Black Arts. 

shorter pipe, where there is less pressure to he overcome. 
This pipe, however, is furnished with a cup-valve, which can 
be closed at pleasure ; and when so closed, the products of 
distillation must escape by the longer dip-pipe. When the 
charge has been half worked off in one-half of the retort, a 
fresh charge is introduced into the other half, and the products 
of distillation of the new charge are made to pass over the 
incandescent coal, or that which has been about three or four 
hours under distillation. This is readilj' effected by closing 
or opening the shorter dip-pipe, according to the end of the 
retort last charged. The principle of the reciprocating re 
tort has been adopted at different works, with variations in 
the practical details. 

Of late years clay retorts have been largely introduced 
into gas works, and they are said to be more durable, and 
to stand a higher temperature than iron retorts, the latter 
working best at a cherry-red heat, and the former at a white 
heat, which is more favorable to the increased production of 
gas than the lower temperature. It is stated, that where a 
clay retort has yielded a milhon and a half cubic feet of gas, 
an iron one has furnished only 800,000 cubic feet. Clay re- 
torts appear, from their greater porosity to leak more than iron 
ones ; but after working some months, the pores become 
clogged with carbon, and the porosity is thus greatly dimin- 
ished, and the leakage is even less than in iron retorts work- 
ing under the same pressure.* As the demand for clay 
retorts increased, the manufacture of them improved, an 
example of which improvement is well illustrated in the case 
of the retorts of the Great Exhibition of 1851, exhibited by 
Messrs. Cowen of Blaydon Burn, near Newcastle-on-Tyne, 
"When this firm first manufactured retorts about twenty years 

* One of the greatest sources of loss in the manufacture of gas arises from 
the leakage, not only of the retorts and other apparatus within the works, 
but also of the mains, a loss amounting to from 10 to 30 and upward per 
cent. Mr. Croll estimates the loss at one-sixth of the gas sent out. The 
porosity of cast-iron pipes, not at their joints merely, but throughout their 
whole length, is evident from the saturation of the soil with "gas in the 
immediate vicinity of the mains. Not only does the gas escape by exos- 
mose into the air, but by the reverse process of endosmose, air enters the i 
pipes in some cases, as Prof. Graham has found, to the extent of 25 per \ 
cent. Pi-of. Brande thinks that the fetid odor of the soil in contact with 
the gas mains is due to the exosmose of ammonia, rather than of tar and 
naptha, to which the ill odor is generally attributed. 



Gas — Manufacture. 261 

ago, each retort was made in ten pieces, which number was 
reduced to four, then to three, and then to two ; and in 1844 
the retort was made complete in one piece of the dimensions 
of 10 feet in length, and 3 feet in internal width. The clay 
of which these retorts are manufactured is exposed to the 
weather for some years, and is frequently turned over, and 
the fragments of fossils picked out, by which means most of 
the iron is got rid of, which in other fire-clays is so injurious. 
Some of these retorts are stated to have continued in active 
use for 38 months, thus exhibiting four times the durability 
of iron ones. 

Brick retorts, or rather ovens, have also been introduced, 
and are said to be very durable, and to work satisfactorily. 
In one case the charge is 5 or 6 cwt. of coal every twelve 
hours, and the yield 9000 cubic feet of gas for one ton of 
Welsh coal, and from 10,000 to 12,000 cubic feet from one 
ton of Newcastle coal. The fuel required for the carboniza- 
tion of the coal is said to be unusually large. Wrought-iron 
retorts, made of thick boiler plates firmly riveted together, 
have also been tried to a limited extent. 

When clay retorts came into general use, the circumstance 
that they required a much higher heat than iron retorts sug- 
gested the economical plan of heating the clay retorts by the 
direct action of the furnace, and arranging the iron retorts 
in a separate oven, heated by the same furnace, or within a 
system of return flues, where they would be submitted to a 
less intense heat. By this means Mr. Croll has found, that 
with two furnace grates of 252 square inches in each, he has 
been able to carbonize in 24 hours five tons of coal in the 
clay retorts of one bench, and three tons and a half in the 
iron retorts of the same bench, with such an economy of fuel, 
that only twelve per cent, of all the coke made is required for 
the furnaces ; whereas, in most of the London works, nearly 
one-third of the coke made is consumed in heating the re- 
torts. 

The quantity of gas produced during the time the coal is 
undergoing decomposition is extremely variable. From a 
small retort, exposed for eighty-five minutes to a bright red 
heat, which was kept up with the utmost possible uniformity, 
the following results were obtained from eight pounds of the 
Wemyss coal : 



262 Five Black Arts. 

Cub. Ft. Cub. In. 

In 1st ten minutes 6 235 

2d do 8 980 

3d do 8 1254 

4th do 5 784 

6th do 4 1450 

6th do 3 313 

Last twenty-five minutes 6 1660 

43 1492 

At the time the process was terminated the extraction of 
aeriform matter had nearly ceased, so that the quantity of 
gas yielded by a pound of the coal was about five and a half 
cubic feet. The same coal carbonized on the large scale 
yielded when the process was carried on for four hours, at 
the rate of four and one-third cubic feet of gas per pound. 
The weight of the coke in the above experiment was 32,050 
grains ; and as the weight of the gas, the specific gravity of 
which was -66, must have been 15,026 grains, the tar and 
other residuary products, including the sulphuretted hydrogen 
abstracted by the process of purification, must have amounted 
to 8924 grains. 

When the decomposition is effected on the large scale, the 
quantity of gas is found to vary with the quality of the coal, 
and the manner in which the operation is conducted. Ac- 
cording to Mr. Peckston, a chaldron of Newcastle Wallsend 
coal yields 10,000 cubic feet, being at the rate of o70J cubic 
feet per cwt. The different kinds of Newcastle coal yield 
from 8000 to 12,500 cubic feet of gas per ton ; the parrot 
or cannel coals furnish from 9000 to 15,000 feet per ton, the 
last named quantity being obtained from the Boghead cannel, 
in which case the specific gravity of the gas is "752, and as 
much as 866 avoirdupois lbs. of gas are obtained from each 
ton of coal. The Wallsend Newcastle, known as Berwick 
and Craister's, only yields 449 lbs., and of the specific grav- 
ity -470. Of the Derbyshire, Staffordshire, Welsh, and other 
varieties of coal, the yield varies from 6500 to about 11,000 , 
cubic feet of gas per ton of coal. So that under the best 
methods of working it is of great importance to obtain a coal 
that is rich in bituminous matter. 

It must not, however, be supposed that any thing like the 
above quantities of gas are obtained from coal in the practical 
working of it in the gas-house. The manufacturer is exposed 



Gas — Manufacture. 263 

to losses from a variety of causes, such as leakage, as already 
noticed, and also from the tendency of the carbon of the gas, 
or of the hydro-carburets distilled from the coal, to form de- 
posits of charcoal which may attain an inch or more in thick- 
ness on the inner surface of the retorts, not only producing 
a loss of gas, but causing the retorts to burn out more quickly, 
and leading to expense and delay in removing the deposit. 
It was formerly supposed that this deposit was owing to the 
overheating of the retort, or to an excess of heating surface. 
It was found, however, by Mr. Grafton that the pressure to 
which the gas is subjected in the retort is the cause of the 
deposit. It is scarcely necessary to remark, that when an 
elastic body is generated in a close vessel, the pressure which 
it exerts upon such vessel depends greatly upon the resistance 
to which it is exposed in seeking to escape. In endeavoring 
to force its way by the dip-pipe through several inches of tar 
into the hydraulic main, the resistance thus offered produces 
a considerable pressure on the inner surface of the retorts. 
The passage of the gas through the washing vessels and lime 
purifiers increases this pressure, thereby promoting the deposit 
complained of, and causing an increased production of tar at 
the expense of the gas. Mr. Grafton found that by working 
the retorts under a pressure of 14 inches of water, a deposit 
of carbon one inch in thickness was formed within the retorts 
in one week, and in the course of two months it filled up nearly 
one-fourth of the retort. On working the retorts with no 
other pressure than that produced by the insertion of the 
dip-pipe half an inch into the fluid of the hydraulic main, 
little or no deposit took place in the retorts in four months 
with the same kind of coal. It is now common at many 
gas-works to introduce some kind of pumping apparatus, 
known under the name of the exhauster or extractor^ between 
the hydraulic main and the condenser, or between this and 
the lime purifiers, by which means the pressure of the gas 
within the retorts can be reduced to any amount. It is, 
however, found desirable not to carry this reduction too far, 
lest atmospheric air should find its way into the retorts, and 
thus form an explosive mixture with the gas. 

The quality of the gas yielded by coal varies greatly at 
different periods of the carbonizing process. The first pro- 
ducts, when the coal has not been previously well dried, con- 



264 Five Black Arts. 

sisfc almost entirely of aqueous vapor and carbonic acid ; these 
are succeeded by light carburetted hydrogen, olefiant gas, and 
sulphuretted hydrogen, which gradually diminish in quantity 
till toward the close of the process, when almost the only pro- 
ducts are carbonic oxide and hydrogen. Hence, if the pro- 
cess be carried on too long, the gases obtained in the latter 
stages of it will not only be useless for the purpose of yielding 
light, but the fuel employed for their production will be ex- 
pended in wasting the retorts to produce substances which 
are calculated to impair the illuminating power of the gases 
with which they are mixed. In the case of cannel coal, the 
interval between the charges of the retorts should not exceed 
three and a half or four hours ; nor in the case of the New- 
castle coal, which is not so easily decomposed, ought that in- 
terval to extend beyond six hours. 

The Condensing Main and Dip Pipes. 

From the retorts the gas, after its production, ascends by 
means of pipes, called stand-pipes, into what is termed the 
condensing main, which is a large cast-iron pipe, about twelve 
or fifteen inches in diameter, placed in a horizontal position, 
and supported by columns in front of the brickwork which 
contains the retorts. Wrought-iron hydraulic mains are now 
coming into use, and are preferable on account of their su- 
perior lightness and strength. This part of a gas apparatus 
is intended to serve a twofold purpose : First, to condense 
the tar and grosser products of distillation ; and, secondly, 
to allow each of the retorts to be charged singly without per- 
mitting the gas produced from the rest, at the time that op- 
eration is going on, to make its escape. To accomplish these 
objects, one end of the condensing main is closed by a flanch ; 
and the other, where it is connected with the pipes for con- 
ducting the gas toward the tar vessel and purifying apparatus, 
has, crossing it, in the inside, a semi-flanch or partition, oc- 
cupying the lower half of the area of the section, by which 
the condensing vessel is always kept half full of liquid matter. 

The stand-pipes are connected by a flanch with a branch- 
pipe rising from the upper side of the condensing main ; and 
as the lower end of it dips about two inches below the level 
of the liquid matter, it is evident that no gas can return and 



Gas — Manufacture. 265 

escape, when the mouth-piece of the retort is removed, until 
it has forced the liquid matter over the bend, a result which 
is easily prevented hj making it of a suitable length. The 
upper part of the branch of the dip-pipe is generally furnished 
with a ground plug to allow the removal of the tarry matter, 
which is apt to accumulate in a concrete state at the lower 
part of the pipe where it is nearest the furnace. The dip- 
pipes vary in diameter from 3 J to 4 inches. 

Of the Tar Apparatus. 

After emerging from the lower end of the dip-pipe, the gas, 
now bereft of a considerable portion of the vapor of water, 
tar, and oleaginous matter, which ascends with it from the 
retort, is conveyed by pipes, for the purpose of being com- 
pletely freed from these impurities, into contrivances where a 
more perfect condensation takes place. As the subsequent 
purification of the gas depends, in no small degree, upon the 
perfect separation of the tar and other condensable products, 
by which it is accompanied, the construction of the vessels 
best calculated for attaining that end is a matter of the ut- 
most importance ; and indeed it may be justly affirmed, that 
unless that separation be effectually accomplished, the action 
of the chemical agents to which the gas is afterward exposed, 
must be limited and imperfect. 

The first contrivances employed for the purpose of con- 
densation were all constructed on the supposition that the 
object would be best attained by causing the gas to travel 
through a great extent of pipes, surrounded by cold water, 
and winding through it like the worm of a still, or ascending 
upward and downward in a circuitous manner. An improve- 
ment on this form of condenser, and the one now in general 
use, consists of a series of upright pipes connected in pairs 
at the top by semi- circular pipes, and terminating at the bot- 
tom in a trough containing water, and divided by means of 
partitions in such a way that as the gas enters the trough 
from one pipe it passes up the next pipe and down into the 
next partition, and so on to the end of the condenser. The 
cooling power of this air-condenser, as it is called, is some- 
times assisted by allowing cold water to trickle over the outer 
surface of the pipes. In passing through these pipes the gas 



266 Five Black Arts. 

is considerably reduced in temperature, and the tar and am- 
moniacal liquor condense, the tar subsiding to the bottom, 
and the ammoniacal liquor floating on the surface. In the 
course of time the water in the trough is entirely displaced 
by these two gaseous products, and as these accumulate they 
pass off into a tar-tank, from which either liquor can be re- 
removed by means of a pump adapted to the purpose. 

Of the purifying Apparatus for separating the Gases unfit 
for the purposes of Illumination. 

With the two compounds of hydrogen and carbon, viz., 
defiant gas and light carburetted hydrogen, which are yielded 
by coal during its destructive distillation by heat, several 
other products are obtained, which are not only useless for 
the purpose of illumination, but are calculated to diminish the 
brilliancy of the light which is afforded by these gases, and 
even to prove a source of serious nuisance during their com- 
bustion. Among these products of a deleterious nature are 
carbonic acid and sulphuretted hydrogen ; and in smaller 
quantity, carbonic oxide, nitrogen, and hydrogen. The first 
two are by far the most objectionable of these impurities ; and 
fortunately their separation can be effected more easily than 
that of the others, the presence of which is of less importance. 

Carbonic acid is readily absorbed by any of the alkalies 
or earthy bodies in a caustic state ; and sulphuretted hydro- 
gen, which possesses many of the properties of an acid, unites 
not only with the alkalies and alkaline earths, with which it 
farms a species of salts termed hydro sulphurets^ but also with 
the metallic oxides, most of which it reduces. 

The alkalies being too expensive to be used for separating 
carbonic acid and sulphuretted hydrogen from coal-gas, a 
more economical substitute, and which answers the purpose 
almost equally well, is found in quick-lime. This substance 
is accordingly used in every gas establishment on the large 
scale, in some form or other, in purifying the gas. It is em- 
ployed in two states ; either in the condition of a thin paste, 
which the workmen call the cream of lime, or of a moistened 
powder, such as lime assumes when it is slaked with a little 
more than the usual quantity of water. The apparatus must 



Gas — Manufacture. 267 

therefore be accomodated, in its construction and arrange- 
ment, to these different conditions of the purifying material. 

AVhen the lime is used in a liquid state, the gas is made 
to pass through it so as to be as much as possible exposed to 
its action ; and it being highly conducive to the success of 
the purifying process that a succession of fresh portions of 
the liquid lime should be brought in contact with the gas as 
it passes through it, the material is kept in a state of constant 
agitation by means of machinery. 

One of the objections against the method of purifying by 
the cream of lime, or lime in a liquid state, is, that unless 
the gas be previously freed entirely from tar, that substance 
enveloping it with a thin film of oleaginous matter, which has 
little tendency to unite with water, carries the gas along with 
it in rolling bubbles, so that the internal parts of it can thus 
scarcely ever come into contact with the purifying materials. 
In some arrangements mechanical contrivances are employed 
to agitate and disperse the gas, with the view of exposing 
every portion of it, more or less, to the action of the lime ; 
but these modes of promoting the efficacy of the process can- 
not be resorted to without the aid of some moving power, 
which, in many cases, must necessarily be attended with con- 
siderable trouble, as well as additional expense. There is 
another objection to which this method of purification, even 
if it required not the assistance of machinery, must always 
be liable ; namely, that the olefiant gas, upon which the il- 
luminating power mainly depends, is largely absorbed by 
water, insomuch that either oil or coal gas, standing a few 
days over that fluid, suffers a great deterioration of its quality, 
and becomes in every respect less fit for the purposes of il- 
lumination. When lime is used in the dry state, or rather 
in the state of a moistened powder, for purifying coal gas, 
neither of these objections is applicable ; and when the ar- 
rangements for that mode of purification are contrived with 
a due regard to the simplictiy and convenience of the ma- 
nipulations, the separation of the useless and noxious gases is 
effected more easily, and not less effectually, than by the 
method of liquid lime. The abstraction of the sulphuretted 
hydrogen becomes more perfect by adding to the lime a small 
portion of the peroxide of manganese, which, being a cheap 
substance, adds very little to the expense of the process. 



268 Five Black Arts. 

It is stated that a bushel of quick-lime is sufficient for the 
purification of 10,000 cubic feet of gas. Bj slaking and 
reducing it to powder its bulk is more than doubled ; two 
bushels of hydrate of lime thus formed cover a surface of 
25 square feet to a depth of 2J inches. At some works a 
bushel of slaked lime, or half a bushel of unslaked lime, is 
allowed for every ton of coals distilled. Some engineers 
estimate that 40 lbs. of lime are required for every 10,000 
cubic feet of gas from average Newcastle coal. If more lime 
is required the coal must have been damp, or have contained 
more than the usual proportion of sulphur. Good Newcastle 
coal contains about one per cent, of sulphur; some kinds of 
cannel only one-half per cent. The capacity of dry lime 
purifiers is calculated on the assumption that 25 square feet 
of surface are required for 10,000 feet of gas. The purifi- 
ers are generally arranged in a set of four, three of which 
are usually at work while the fourth is being emptied. The 
spent lime contains hydrosulphuret of ammonia, and when 
exposed to the air it evolves sulphuretted hydrogen, carbonic 
acid taking its place. The poisonous liberated gas thus be- 
comes a nuisance to the neighborhood, but it is sometimes got 
rid of before the purifier is emptied, by connecting each pu- 
rifier with a large horizontal pipe which opens into the chim- 
ney-shaft of the retort-house, the powerful draught of which 
draws off all volatile matter from the lime, air instead of gas 
being let in at the bottom. The cover of the purifier can 
then be raised, and the lime be removed Avithout annoyance 
to any one. The lime is burned in ovens, and is used a 
second time in the purifiers, after which it becomes refuse. 

The quantity of lime necessary for purifying a given vol- 
ume of coal-gas varies, as already stated, with the quantity 
of sulphur contained in the coal from which the gas is prp- 
duced. It is proper, however, to examine at intervals, during 
the progress of the purification, the state of the gas by such 
chemical tests as are calculated to detect the presence of any 
of the deleterious substances with which it is usually contam- 
inated. Thus carbonic acid is readily discovered by agitat- 
ing a small portion of the coal-gas with lime water in a limpid 
state, the solution being quickly rendered turbid when the 
most minute quantity of that gas is present. Sulphuretted 
hydrogen is discovered with equal facility by causing a small 



Gas — Manufacture. 269 

current of coal-gas to play against a slip of paper moistened 
■with a weak solution of acetate of lead, or nitrate of silver, 
both of which instantly become black when they are exposed 
to the action of sulphuretted hydyogen. 

Of late years a variety of improvements have been intro- 
duced for purifying gas, which we now proceed briefly to no- 
tice. They are at present only in partial use, but are likely 
to lead to important results. Indeed the chemistry of the 
manufacture is just now in a transition state, and is receiving 
considerable attention from scientific men. 

After the tar and ammonia have been for the most part 
extracted from the gas by the condenser, a further separation 
of ammonia is now frequently effected by passing the gas 
through layers of coke dust, cinder or breeze, or brick-dust, 
placed in trays or sieves, six or eight inches apart, in a vertical 
hollow shaft, and as the gas streams up through the porous 
column the ammonia is retained. This scrubber^ as it is called, 
is sometimes used, in conjunction with a washing vessel, and 
sometimes the latter only is employed, with the advantage of 
separating a portion of sulphuretted hydrogen and carbonic 
acid as well as the ammonia ; but the wash-vessel is said to 
remove much of the defiant gas, the illuminating power of 
which is very high ; an objection which does not apply to the 
scrubber. Mr. Croll has patented a methed of separating 
ammonia by means of chloride of manganese, which has the 
effect also of removing much of the sulphide of carbon, of 
producing a saving of one-half or one- third of the lime re- 
quired in the subsequent process, while a valuable product is 
formed by the chlorine of the manganese uniting with the 
ammonia, to form sal-ammoniac. Ammonia has also been 
separated by passing th*^ gas through dilute sulphuric acid, 
the resulting sulphate of ammonia being also a valuable sec- 
ondary product. The ammonia may also be separated by 
means of sulphate of manganese, chloride, or sulphate of zinc. 

Formerly a good deal of ammonia passed off with the gas 
to the consumer, to the great injury of the gas meter, the 
gas fittings, and the furniture of houses. After the ammonia 
has been separated, the gas is passed into the dry-lime purifiers, 
which are preferable to the wet lime, not only for the reasons 
already stated, but on account of the less amount of pressure 
required to force the gas through them. The objection to 



270 Five Black Arts. 

dry lime is on account of the volatile nature of the offensive 
hydrosulphide of ammonia, which is only combined with it, 
so that when the purifiers are opened, and the spent lime taken 
out, the oxygen of the air combines with the hydrosulphide, 
evolving great heat, and filling the neighborhood with noxious 
odors. This serious objection is now obviated by getting rid 
of the ammonia between the condenser and the purifier : the 
salts separated by the dry lime are then no longer volatile, 
but, on the contrary, the spent lime becomes in some cases a 
valuable manure, consisting, as it does, of sulphate, carbonate, 
and cyanide of lime. 

A method of purifying the gas, patented by Mr. Hills of 
Deptford, is now attracting considerable attention. It is based 
upon the property of the hydrated oxide of iron to decompose 
sulphuretted hydrogen, a portion of the sulphur forming a 
sulphide with the iron. Quick-lime is also used to separate 
carbonic acid, and the oxide of iron is mixed with sawdust 
or cinders (breeze) for the purpose of increasing the surfaces 
of contact, and this mixture is placed in the purifiers. When 
a sufficient quantity of gas has passed through it the purifiers 
are opened, and the mixture is exposed to the air, under which 
new condition it combines with oxygen, and again becomes 
fitted for use in the purifiers. The chemical changes which 
occur in these operations are the following : — The mixture of 
hydrated oxide of iron, etc., absorbs sulphuretted hydrogen 
Fe2 03 4-3HS=Fe2S3 + 3HO. Tho sulphide of iron, by 
exposure to the air, absorbs oxygen, and the sulphur is sepa- 
rated in an uncombined form Fe2S3-|-03=Fe203-|- S3. 
The mixed material can be again employed in the purification 
of the gas, and the process may be repeated until the accu- 
mulation of sulphur mechanically impairs the absorbent powers 
of the mixture. The sulpho-cyanogen which accompanies 
the gas is retained by the oxide of iron, and gradually accu- 
mulates in the mixture. 

Chemists have also sought for substitutes for lime, or for 
means of diminishing the amount usually required. M. Penot 
recommends sulphate of lead for separating sulphide of hy- 
drogen. Professor Graham proposes to add to the slaked 
lime one equivalent of crystallized sulphate of soda, which 
would absorb sulphide of hydrogen until two equivalents 
thereof were absorbed by one equivalent of lime ; the lime 



Gas — Manufactdre. 271 

is converted into sulphate, and the soda becomes bi-hjdro- 
sulphuret, which might be readily washed out of the lime, 
and again be converted into soda by roasting, and thus be 
used over and over again to mix with the lime. The secondary 
product formed in the manufacture of chloride of lime, viz., 
the mixture of chloride of manganese with sulphate of soda, 
has also been used as an efficient gas-purifier. 

Cf-asometers for receiving and containing the Gas before it 
is consumed. 

As many disadvantages would be experienced by attempt- 
ing to adjust the production of the gas to the rate of its con- 
sumption, it is found to be more convenient, as well as more 
economical, to store up such a portion of it during the day as 
shall compensate for the deficiency of the supply that may 
be furnished during the time the gas is being consumed in 
the course of the evening. The capacity of the vessels used 
for this purpose, which are incorrectly called gasometers (for 
they do not measure the gas, but only act as gas-holders), 
must be regulated by a regard to that consideration. 

The form of the gasometer is generally that of an inverted 
cylindrical cup, the diameter of which, when economy is 
studied, ought to be double of its depth, or at least not more 
than two or three inches less. Gasometers were formerly 
composed of sheet iron varying in weight from two to three 
lbs. to the square foot, well riveted at the joints, and kept in 
shape by means of stays and braces formed of cast or bar 
iron. The sheet iron was made to overlap at the joints — a 
slip of canvas, well besmeared with white-lead, being inter 
posed to secure perfect tightness. The prismatic shape was 
also formerly adopted, but it was not found to be so conven- 
ient as the cylindrical, partly on account of the difficulty of 
making it retain its form, and partly on account of the greater 
quantity of material, compared with the capacity, that is nec- 
essary for its construction. 

The gasometer on the old construction was furnished with 
a tank, of the same form with itself, but a little larger in di- 
mensions, for containing the water, in which it was suspended 
at different altitudes, by means of a chain and (jpunterpoise 
moving over pulleys. The tank was sometimes built of stone, 



272 Five Black Arts. 

but more frequently constructed of cast-iron plates bolted 
together by flanches, with an interval between them of about 
three-eighths of an inch, which was afterward filled up with 
iron cement.* 

As the gasometer, when it is immersed in the water of 
the tank, suffers a loss of weight equal to that of the portion 
of the fluid it displaces, it is evident that unless some ar- 
rangement be made to counteract the varying pressure which 
must thus result from the different depths to which it may be 
immersed, the gas contained in the gasometer will be expelled, 
at different times, with a varying force. If, however, the 
weight of the chain of suspension, or rather the weight of that 
portion of it whose length is the same as the height to which 
the gasometer ascends, be equal to half the loss of weight which 
the gasometer sustains by immersion in water, a perfect com- 
pensation will be made, and an equilibrium will hold between 
the gasometer and its counterpoise at all altitudes. Thus, if 
the weight of the gasometer were five tons, or 11,200 lbs., 
and it lost by immersion a seventh part of its weight, or 1600 
lbs., then the weight of that portion of the chain equal in length 
to the highest ascent of the gasometer would require to be 800 
lbs., and the weight of the counterpoise 11,200 — 800, or 
10,400 lbs. 

lbs. 
For, the gasometer being immersed, its virtual weight is 11,200 

— 1600, or 9,600 

Weight of portion of chain now acting with the gasometer 800 

Sum is the weight of counterpoise 10,400 

Again : 

The gasometer being elevated out of water, its weight is 11,200 

Weight of chain now acting in opposition ito it 800 

Difference is the weight of counterpoise 10,400 

* The following iron cement is recommended by Peckston : Take iron 
turnings or borings, and pound them in a mortar till they are small enough 
to pass through a fine sieve ; then, with one pound of these borings, so 
prepared, mix two ounces of sal-ammoniac in powder, and one ounce of 
flowers of sulphur, by rubbing them well together in a mortar ; and after- 
ward keep the mixture dry till it may be wanted for use. When it is so, 
for every part thereof, by measure, take twenty parts of iron borings, pre- 
pared as above mentioned, and mix them well together in a mortar or other 
iron vessel. The compound is to be brought to a proper consistency by 
pouring water gently over it as it is mixing ; and when used it must be 
applied between the flanches by means of a blunted caulking iron. 



Gas — Manufacture. 273 

Although the compensation, by this adjustment of the 
•weight of the chain, answers the purpose in the most effectual 
manner, the following method is by some deemed preferable. 
Let the counterpoise consist of a long cylindrical or prismatic 
body, having the area of its horizontal section equal to the 
area of a similar section of the plates of the gasometer, and 
be allowed to descend into the water as the gasometer rises 
out of it. Also let the chain be of a weight equal (length 
for length) to a column of water of equal bulk with the coun- 
terpoise. Then, if the weight of the gasometer be, as al- 
ready supposed, 11,200 lbs., the weight of the counterpoise 
must be the same ; but the weight of that portion of the 
chain, which, by the above arrangement, was only equal to 
half the loss of weight sustained by the gasometer when im- 
mersed, must now be equal to the whole of that weight. 

lbs. 

Then, the weight of the gasometer in the water is, as before 9,600 

Weight of the chaia now acting with the gasometer 1,600 

"Weight of counterpoise, now out of the water 11,200 

Again : 

The weight of the gasometer, out of the water, is 11,200 

Weight of the chain, now acting in opposition to the gasometer. . . 1,600 

Weight of the counterpoise, in water 9,600 

Though we have only shown, in both these modes of com- 
pensation, that an equilibrium between the gasometer and its 
counterpoise holds in the extreme cases, it would be easy to 
prove that the same thing must subsist at all the intermediate 
elevations of the gasometer. At the same time, it must be 
obvious that these contrivances, however well calculated they 
may be to secure the equilibrium alluded to, can have no ef- 
fect in expelling the gas ; and therefore, when it is wished 
that the contents of the gasometer shall issue from it under 
a certain pressure, the weight of the counterpoise must be 
diminished to a suitable extent. Thus, if it were required 
that the pressure employed for expelling the gas should be 
equal to that produced by a column of water three-fourths 
of an inch deep, then it would be necessary to diminish the 
weight of the counterpoise by the weight of a column of water 
having the same diameter with the gasometer, and an altitude 
of three-fourths of an inch. If the diameter of the gasom- 
18 



274 Five Black Arts. 

eter above-mentioned were, for example, 35 feet or 420 inches, 
the weight of a cylindrical portion of water having that di- 
ameter, and a depth of three-fourths of an inch, would be, 
in grains, 
420^ X 7854 X | X 252-5 = 26236876 grs. or 3740 lbs. 

Hence it would be necessary to make the counterpoise 
3740 lbs. lighter than it was supposed to be according to the 
above-mentioned arrangements, in order that the gas might 
issue from the gasometer under the pressure of three-fourths 
of an inch of water. If the calculation were conducted with 
extreme accuracy, the specific gravity of the gas ought also 
to be taken under consideration ; but the object to be attained 
is not of so delicate a nature as to require an attention to 
such minute circumstances. Besides, we shall afterward 
find that the value of the arrangements we have described 
for obtaining a uniform and equable pressure is greatly di- 
minished ; and these are even entirely superseded by a con- 
trivance called the governor. 

Such is the old method of constructing gasometers. Of 
late years, however, a different system has prevailed. In- 
stead of making them of heavy plate iron, strengthened by 
angle iron and stays, and of so great a weight as to require 
the above-described complex system of equilibrium chains and 
counterbalancing weights to relieve the gas from the great 
pressure to which it would otherwise be subjected, the gas- 
holders are now made so light that they actually require to 
be loaded in order to supply the required pressure. The 
practice has even been introduced of not suspending the 
gas-holders at all, but regulating their rise and fall by means 
of guide-rods placed round the tank. 

The pipes by which the gas is commonly introduced and 
conducted off being in many cases considerably below the 
level of the street pipes with which they communicate, are 
apt to be filled up in the course of time with the condensed 
water which passes off in a vaporous state with the gas. To 
remedy this inconvenience, it is necessary to place vessels for 
receiving that water in connection with the entrance and exit 
pipes, so contrived that the accumulated water may be easily 
removed from them when required. 



Gas — Distribution. 275 



Of the Main and Service Pipes. 

The gas being dulj purified and prepared for combustion, 
the next point to be considered is the transmission of it from 
the gasometer to the various places where it is to be consumed. 
As it must sometimes be conveyed, particularly in the case 
of large establishments, to the distance of several miles, it is 
evident that unless the diameters of the various pipes through 
which it is to be conducted have a due relation to the quan- 
tity of gas to be transmitted, there will be a danger either of 
incurring an unnecessary expense, by making the pipes too 
large ; or, what is still worse, of being exposed to a deficiency 
of supply, by making them too small. The first object, there- 
fore, to be ascertained by the engineer, is the probable num- 
ber of lights that may be required in the various streets and 
lanes in which these pipes are to be laid ; and these being 
known, the corresponding quantity of gas, according to the 
quality of it, may be afterward computed. With regard to 
the relative dimensions of the pipes at different distances from 
the gas-work, the only general rule to be observed is, that the 
sum of the areas of the sections of the main pipes proceed- 
ing immediately from the gasometer should be equal to the 
sum of the areas of the sections of the various branch-pipes 
which they supply with gas ; and this rule, with some little 
modification, should be followed in the case of the subordinate 
ramifications. 

In the case of good coal-gas, we may safely reckon that 
one-fourth of a cubic foot of it will furnish the light of a 
moulded candle for an hour, of which one pound will, when 
the candles are burnt in succession, last forty hours. On this 
supposition, and assuming that the pressure upon the gas in 
the gasometer is equal to three-fourths of an inch of water, 
the diameters of pipes necessary for conveying various quan- 
tities of gas may be stated as follows : 



276 



Five Black Arts. 



Diameter of 


Quantity of Gas in 


Equivalent Num- 


Pipe in laches. 


cubic feet per hour. 


ber of Candles. 


i 


4 


16 


i 


20 


80 


3 

4 


50 


200 


1 


90 


360 


2 


380 


1,520 


3 


880 


3,520 


4 


1,580 


6,320 


5 


2,480 


9,920 


6 


3,580 


14,320 


7 


4,880 


19,520 


8 


6,380 


25,520 


9 


8,090 


32,360 


10 


10,000 


40,000 



This table has been deduced partly from theoretical con- 
siderations, and partly from the results of experiment. 
Peckston affirms, in his work on Gas-lighting, that a pipe 
ten inches in diameter, is capable of transmitting 50,000 
cubic feet of gas per hour, under a pressure of one inch of 
water ; while, according to the statement of Mr. Creighton, 
such a pipe would scarcely convey the tenth part of that 
quantity, under a pressure of from four-eighths to three- 
fourths of an inch of water. It is impossible to reconcile 
these discordant statements either by an allowance for the 
difference of pressure or the difference of the specific gravi- 
ties of the gases ; for it ought to be kept in view that the 
discharge of gas is directly proportioned to the square 
root of the height of the column of water by which it is 
pressed, and inversely as the square root of the specific 
gravity of the gas. Both of these propositions, however, 
must be greatly modified by friction, and consequently by the 
length of the pipes through which the gas is conveyed. 
In the supply stated to be furnished by pipes of different 
dimensions, we have deemed it safest rather to underrate the 
quantity than overrate it. 

The main-pipes are usually made of cast-iron, joined to- 



Gas — Distribution. 277 

gether with socket-joints, in lengths of three yards. The 
depths of the sockets vary in pipes of different sizes from 
three to six inches, part of them being fitted with gasket to 
bring the centers of the pipes into line, and the remainder 
with lead after the gasket has been driven home with suitable 
chisels or caulking irons. The depth of lead to secure a 
good joint should not be less than an inch and a half; the in- 
terval between the spigot and the socket being from three- 
eighths to seven-eighths of an inch, according to the diameter 
of the pipe. Joints are now frequently made without lead. 
One plan is to caulk into the bottom of the socket, to the 
depth of two inches, white rope-yarn covered with putty, and 
to nearly fill up with tarred gaskets, leaving a gate into which 
is poured a composition of melted tallow and vegetable oil. 
Another plan is to bore the socket of the pipe with a slightly 
conical opening, the small end being similarly turned to fit 
the socket. The two ends of the pipe are coated with a mix- 
ture of white and red lead, and being brought together, are 
driven home by a mallet. Such a joint is said to be quite 
tight. Rings of vulcanized India-rubber have also been 
recommended for the joints of gas and water pipes. 

As a considerable quantity of water is carried off by the 
gas in the state of vapor, which is afterward condensed in the 
pipes, some arrangement must be made for its collection and 
occasional removal ; and accordingly, in laying the pipes, 
care must be taken to give them a regularity of declivity 
toward one or more points, where proper syphons, close ves- 
sels, and cocks must be placed, to receive and discharge the 
collected water. When these precautions are neglected, or 
when the levels are inaccurately taken, much anaoyance is 
experienced ; and as the evil can only be corrected by lifting 
and rejoining the pipes, the utmost attention should be paid 
to guard against it at first. 

To convey the gas from the main-pipes, and distribute it 
through the various apartments of dwelling-houses, pipes 
made of block-tin are generally used ; these being more du- 
rable and better adapted to the purpose than pipes composed 
of copper or any other metal. In arranging the interior fit- 
tings, the same precautions must be observed as were recom- 
mended in the case of the main pipes, viz., to give the va- 



278 Five Black Arts. 

the condensed water to flow to one or more points, where 
proper cocks must be placed for its removal. Unless this be 
done, the lights will be apt to flicker, or be extinguished at 
times altogether. Nor is it of trivial moment to enjoin the 
workmen, when thej are soldering the service-pipes, to avoid 
with the utmost care allowing any of the melted metal to find 
its way into the inside of the pipes ; it being in a great meas- 
ure to this circumstance that the deficiency in the supply of 
gas, so frequently complained of, is owing. 

Of the Governor or Regulator. 

The quantity of gas consumed in large towns varying 
greatly at difierent times, it is evidently a matter of some im- 
portance to the public, as well as to the manufacturers of gas, 
that the supply of it should be duly adjusted to the consump- 
tion ; so that when the lamps are once regulated to a proper 
height of flame, they may continue afterward to burn with 
the same steady light throughout the whole of the evening. 
Any contrivance that can accomplish so desirable an object 
must save a great deal of trouble to the consumer of gas, 
and much unnecessary waste of it to the manufacturer ; and 
such is the design of the governor or regulator. Fig. 1 rep- 
resents one of these contrivances, d being the pipe proceed- 
ing from the gasometer, by which the gas is admitted, and e 
the pipe by which it escapes ; e is a valve of conical form, 
fitted to the seat ^, and raised and depressed by means of the 
weight / attached to a cord passing over a pulley ; 56 is a 
cylindrical vessel formed of sheet-iron which ascends and 
descends in the exterior vessel aa, in which water is con- 
tained to the level represented. The gas, entering at cZ, 
passes through the valve, fills the upper part of the inverted 
vessel hb^ which it thus partially raises, and escapes by e. 
If the pressure from the gasometer be unduly increased or 
diminished, the buoyancy of hh will be increased or diminished 
in like proportion, and the valve being by this means more or 
less closed, the quantity of gas escaping at e will be unaltered. 
And not only will the governor accommodate itself to the 
varying pressure of the gasometer, but also to the varying 
quantities of gas required to escape at e for the supply of 
the burners. Thus, if it were necessary that less gas should 



Gas — Distribution. 279 

pass through e, in consequence of the extinction of a portion 
of the lights,. the increased pressure which would thus be pro- 
duced at the gasometer would raise the governor, and par- 
tially shut the valve, till the state of it was duly adapted to 
the requisite supply of gas. 

When a large district is supplied by a single gas com- 
pany, and diiferent parts of the same district consume va- 
riable quantities of gas, variable pressures are required. 
One part of the district where there are numerous shops will 
consume more than another part which consists chiefly of 
private houses, so that the pressure for the former must be 
greater than that required for the latter. For example, the 
Westminster district has about 20 such divisions, comprising 
nearly 150 miles of main, and the varying pressures required 
for each division are managed as follows : In the superin- 
tendent's room there are a number of small gasometers, call- 
ed pressure indicators, and over each is the name of the sub- 
district to be supplied. Each gasometer is about 12 inches 
in diameter. It is supported in a tank of water in such a 
manner that it can rise and fall with the varying pressure in 
the mains with which it is connected by a pipe. At the up- 
per part of the gasometer is a rod, carrying a black lead pen- 
cil, which bears upon a cylinder which is covered with a 
sheet of paper, along the top of which are marked the twenty- 
four hours of the day. From these hours perpendicular lines 
are drawn to the bottom of the sheet, and there are also hori- 
zontal lines, and the bottom is divided into tenths. The 
cylinder is connected with a time-piece, so as to rotate on its 
axis, by which means the pencil draws a line opposite the 
hour when it is set going. If the pressure be constant for a 
number of hours, the pencil will of course describe a portion 
of the circle round the cylinder parallel with the top and 
bottom edges of the paper, or a straight line when the paper 
is unrolled ; if the pressure vary, the line will be diagonal or 
zig-zag. At the end of twenty-four hours the paper is 
taken off the cylinder, and replaced by a new one. A collec- 
tion of these papers for each district furnishes an indrx to the 
supply of gas at any hour of the day to the sub-district to 
which it refers. 

It is often necessary to ascertain the pressure to which the 
gas is subjected in the various forms of apparatus used in the 



280 Five Black Arts. 

manufacture. For this purpose a simple gauge is attached 
thereto, consisting of a bent graduated glass tube containing a 
portion of water or of mercury. If one end of the tube be 
screwed into a vessel or an upright tube containing gas of the 
same pressure as that of the external air, the liquid will stand 
at the same height in the two limbs of the gauge. If the press- 
ure be greater than that of the external air, the liquid will 
rise in the open limb, and the pressure of the gas will be 1, 
2, or more inches, according to the height to which the liquid 
rises. But if the pressure of the gas be less than that of 
the atmosphere, the atmospheric pressure, which always acts 
at the open end of the tube, will prevail, and the liquid will 
be depressed in the open limb, and rise in the other. 

The Gas-Meter. 

The gas-meter is a simple but ingenious mechanical con- 
trivance, the design of which is to measure and record the 
quantity of gas passing through a pipe in any given interval 
of time. Experience has proved it to be no less advantageous 
to the consumer than to the manufacturer of gas, by allow- 
ing the former to use gas without any unnecessary waste of it, 
and securing to the latter a fair and regular price for the 
quantity of it actually consumed. 

There are two forms of meter in actual use, viz., the 2vet and 
the dry. The former, the invention of Mr. Clegg, is repre- 
sented in the annexed figures. In the sections, figs. 2, 3, 
cc represent the outside case, having the form of a flat cylin- 
der ; a is a tube which enters at the center for admitting the 
gas, and 5, fig. 2, is another for conveying it off to the burn- 
ers ; gg are two pivots, one supported by the tube a, and the 
other by an external water-tight cup, projecting from the out- 
side casing, and in which is contained a toothed wheel ^, fix- 
ed upon the pivot, and connected with a train of wheel-work 
(not shown in the figure) to register its revolutions. The 
pivots are fixed to and support a cylindrical drum-shaped ves- 
sel ddd, having openings e, g, e, e, internal partitions ef, e/, 
ff, e/", and a center piece ffff. The machine is filled with 
water, which is poured in at h up to the level of z, and gas 
being admitted under a small pressure at a. it enters into 
the upper part of the center piece, and forces its way through 



GAS.] 



[ Pl-ATK 1. 





AV S 



f^V 3. 



Gas — Meter. 281 

such of the openings / as are from time to time above the 
surface of the water. By its action upon the partition which 
curves over the opening a, a rotatory motion is communicated to 
the cylinder ; the gas from the opposite chamber being at the 
same time expelled by one of the openings e, and afterward 
escaping at h, as already mentioned. 

As the quantity of gas which passes through the machine 
in any given time depends not only upon its internal dimen- 
sions and the number of revolutions which it performs, but also 
upon the level of the surface of the water in which the cylin- 
der revolves, due care must be taken to maintain the water at 
the same level, for the regular action of the meter. This is 
easily accomplished, by pouring in water when necessary, till 
the superfluous quantity is discharged by an orifice properly 
placed for the purpose. 

One great objection to the wet meter is, that the water is 
liable to freeze in winter, by which means the supply of gas 
is stopped ; it has been proposed to use a solution of caustic 
potash or soda instead of water, as being less liable to freeze, 
and exerting a beneficial action on the gas by removing traces 
of carbonic acid or sulphide of hydrogen. A second objection 
is, that if the water level be lowered so that one compartment 
may at the same time communicate with the central and outer 
spaces// and d e, more gas will pass than can be registered, 
an effect sometimes produced by the dishonest consumer tilting 
forward the meter. In the dry meter, as its name implies, no 
liquid is used, and the gas is measured by the number of times 
that a certain bulk of it will fill a chamber constructed so as 
to contract and expand for the passage of the gas. These 
alternate contractions and expansions give motion to certain 
valves and arms, which, with the aid of a train of wheels, 
turn the hands of the dials as in the wet meter. The two 
forms of dry meter Avhich have attracted most attention are 
Defrie's and Croll and Glover's. Defrie's meter consists of 
three measuring chambers separated by leathern partitions 
partially covered by metal plates, and as they expand by the 
pressure of the gas they assume the form of a cone on one 
side or other, the motion of which backward and forward drives 
the measuring machinery, and by an action somewhat similar 
to that of a three-throw pump, a continuous stream of gas is 
ejected. This incessant bending of the leather backward 



282 Five Black Arts. 

and forward causes it to wear rapidly, while the efficiency of 
the meter obviously depends on the soundness of the leather. 
In Messrs. Croll and Glover's meter the leather is applied in 
perhaps a less objectionable form. This meter consists of two 
short metal cylinders, each closed at one end ; AA, fig. 4, 
representing one such end attached to a fixed central plate 
BB, by means of broad bands of leather, which act as hinges, 
allowing one side to swell out with gas, while the other parts 
with its gas by being pressed in toward the center plate. The 
to-and-fro motion of the discs which close the short cylinders 
affords means for measuring the gas. Each disc is kept in 
place by a hinge joint S attached to upright rods, RR'. There 
are also parallel motions exy attached to each disc, and to the 
top plate of the meter. As the gas passes into each cylinder 
and distends it, the rods RR', one on each side, are made to 
move each through the half of a circle by means of jointed 
levers S attached to them. At the top of each rod are two 
arms Rac?, R'ac?, fig. 5, each of which partaking of the motion 
of the rods RR describes alternately the arc of a circle, and 
a rotatory motion is obtained by means of connecting rods 
attached to these arms, and also to two other arms rr which 
Avork two D valves DD, each of which is made to slide back- 
ward and forward over three apertures, the two outer of 
which lead to the inside and outside of the cylinders respec- 
tively, and the middle aperture to the exit pipe E, It is the 
function of these valves to regulate the flow of gas into and 
out of the two chambers of each division of the meter. While 
the gas is flowing into one cylinder and distending it, the gas 
on the other side of this cylinder disc is expelled to the exit 
pipe E ; as soon as this is done, the valve is reversed and gas 
enters on the side of the disc from whence it was last expelled. 
The process is then repeated by the other disc, and in this 
way a continuous flow of gas is obtained by means of the two 
valves DD, which being placed at right angles to the double- 
cranked shaft, and the two cranks on the shaft being at an 
angle of 45° to each other, it follows that as one valve closes 
the other opens, but the closed valve always begins to open 
before the other is quite shut. In fig. 5, the dotted portion 
represents one of the short cylinders A' distended with gas, 
and the other cylinder A collapsed. 

We will now trace the course of the gas in its passage 



Gas— Meter. 283 

through the meter. Suppose a continuous stream of gas 
under pressure to be passing down the inlet pipe I. On 
arriving at i it meets with a horizontal tube which conducts 
it by the aperture o, fig. 5, in the direction of the arrow into 
a triangular chamber Y V. It then passes down an open slit 
of one of the valves, which we will call No. 1, and entering 
one of the cylinders, distends it and forces the gas which 
was on the outside of the disc to escape through slit No. 2, 
and so along a tube h leading to the exit pipe E. While this 
action is going on, that is, while the cylinder on one side is 
being distended, the cylinder on the other side is already full, 
the gas is shut off from it by the sliding valve D, and is made 
to pass on the outside, where exerting its pressure on the disc 
AA, it forces it inward, and the gas escapes along a short 
pipe attached to either side of the partition BB into slit No. 
2, and so escapes to the exit pipe. The triangular chamber 
W has no connection with the cylinders, etc. situated below 
it except through the tubes already indicated, and the train 
of wheels W, fig. 5 ; and the dials are also so boxed in as 
not to be exposed to the corrosive action of the gas. The 
rods R'R pass into this upper compartment through leather 
washers and a stuffing of wool. The cylinders are inclosed 
in an oblong box of iron plate or galvanized iron, so as to be 
completely concealed from view. The pressure to which the 
gas is subjected in order to force it along the mains is amply 
sufficient to work this meter. If the gas were subjected to 
the pressure of only half an inch of water, this quantity 
multiplied into the area of the disc, which in a ten-light 
meter is ten inches in diameter, amounts to many pounds. 

The circular motion of the double crank is transmitted by 
means of an endless screw c, fig. 4, and a spur-wheel b along 
a wire 66, fig. 5, to a train of wheels W, wnich record their 
revolutions on the face of the dials G, also shown separately 
in fig. 6, registering the number of cubic feet of gas consumed, 
in units, tens, hundreds, thousands, etc. The top circle marks 
the units, the left-hand circle hundreds. The motion of the 
hand from to 1 shows that 100 cubic feet of gas have passed 
through the meter, while a whole revolution of this hand re- 
gisters ten times that quantity, or 1000 cubic feet. The 
motion of the hand of the center circle from to 1 indicates 
1000 feet, and a whole revolution 10,000 feet. The right- 



284 Five Black Arts. 

hand circle, in a similar manner, indicates in a whole revolu- 
tion 100,000 feet. In reading off the numbers on the circles, 
we take the number at which the hand is pointing, or the 
lower of the two numbers that the hand is between. In 
fig. 6, beginning with hte right-hand dial, the hand is be- 
tween 9 and 0, showing that nearly a whole revolution has 
been accomplished ; we therefore write down : 

90,000 for the right-hand dial, 
8,000 for the middle dial, 
700 for the left-hand dial. 



98,700 



If the collector, in taking the register three months before, 
had recorded the quantity as 73,200, this quantity, deducted 
from 98,700, gives 25,500 cubic feet as the consumption of 
gas for three months. The top or units dial is not used in 
registering, but it serves to indicate to the collector as well 
as to the consumer that the dial is acting properly, the more 
rapid motion of the hand facilitating this object. 

Burners. 

The most economical mode of consuming gas, so as to 
obtain from a given volume of it the greatest possible quantity 
of light, both in degree and duration, is a problem of no less 
importance than that of the most suitable arrangements for 
its production and purification. The presence of oxygen, in 
some form or another, being essentially necessary to produce 
ordinary combustion, it follows, that from whatever cause that 
principle may be deficient in quantity, the combustion must be 
imperfect; and when this is the case, the light yielded by the 
combustible body is also diminished in a proportional degree*. 
On the other hand, if the quantity of oxygen brought into 
contact with the combustible body be more than sufiicient for 
its entire combustion, the superfluous quantity of that gas, 
instead of augmenting the effect, can only lower the temper- 
ature, and diminish, it may be presumed, in a corresponding 
degree, the intensity of the light. This must be the conse- 
quence if the brilliancy of the light yielded by a combustible 
body depends at all upon the temperature to which it is exposed 
during its combustion ; and that this is the case may be in- 



GAS.] 



[ Plate 3. 



fjjff, 





Gas — Burners. 285 

ferred from the simple fact of causing the flame of a jet of 
gas to play first against a sheet of ice, and then against a 
bar of red-hot iron, when the difl'erence of the light will be 
such as to leave no doubt of the influence of temperature 
upon its intensity. A similar result is obtained bj bringing 
the flames of two separate jets into contact, when an obvious 
increase of light is perceived. From these simple facts it 
may be inferred, that though a certain quantity of common 
air must be brought into contact with the inflamed gas to 
produce the greatest intensity of light, whatever exceeds that 
quantity will not only be useless, but by diminishing the tem- 
perature of the flame, must tend to impair the brilliancy of 
its light. 

But although the immediate cause of the light is probably 
the high temperature to which the carbonaceous portion of 
the gas is exposed, the condition in which the carbon exists 
at the time it is so exposed is of the utmost importance to 
the effect. According to the opinion of Sir Humphry Davy, 
as adopted by Drs. Christison and Turner, " a white light is 
emitted only by those gases which contain an element of so 
fixed a nature as not to be volatilizable by the heat caused 
during the combustion of the gas ; and that in coal-gas this 
fixed element is charcoal, formed by the gas undergoing de- 
composition before it is burnt. The white light is caused by 
the charcoal passing into a state, first of ignition, and then of 
combustion. Consequently no white light can be produced 
by coal or oil gas without previous decomposition of the gas." 

'• That the gas undergoes decomposition before it burns, 
and that the carbonaceous matter is burnt in the white part 
of the flame in the form of charcoal, is shown by placing a 
piece of wire-gauze horizontally across the white part of the 
flame, when a large quantity of charcoal will be seen to escape 
from it unburnt. And that this previous change is necessary 
to the production of a brilliant white light will appear, if we 
consider the kind of flame which is produced when decompo- 
sition does not previously take place. For example, if the 
gauze be brought down into the blue part, which always forms 
the base of the flame, no charcoal will be found to escape. 
Or, if the gauze be held at some distance above the burner, 
and the gas be kindled not below but above it, by which ar- 
rangement the air and the gas are well mixed previous to 



286 Five Black Arts. 

combustion, the flame is blue, and gives hardly any light. 
The reason is obviously, that in both cases the air is at once 
supplied in such quantity in proportion to the gas that the 
first effect of the heat is to burn the gas, not to decompose 
it." [JEdin. Phil. Journal, No. xxv.) 

To these statements it may be added, that if a jet of oil or 
coal gas, burning with a fine yellow flame in common air, be 
suddenly surrounded with an atmosphere of oxygen gas, the 
color instantly changes into a pale blue, yielding the most 
feeble light ; nor does the flame recover its brilliancy until 
the oxygen is largely diluted with carbonic acid, when it burns 
for a short time with greater splendor than at first. For 
although the light is greatly enfeebled when the combustion 
of the gas takes place in pure oxygen, it becomes much more 
vivid when the combustion is carried on in air that is more 
largely charged with oxygen than common air. Hence the 
brilliancy of the light appears to depend upon two conditions : 
1st, the perfect combustion of a portion of the gas in an 
undecomposed state ; 2dli/, the temperature produced by that 
combustion upon the residual part in a decomposed state. 
"When a large portion of the gas is consumed in the first 
condition, the temperature is higher ; but the undecomposed 
part is then too small in quantity to yield an intense light, 
in consequence of the attenuated state of the carbon; and, 
on the other hand, when a small portion of the gas is con- 
sumed in the undecomposed state, the temperature produced 
is too feeble to raise the temperature of the now partially 
decomposed part to a sufficient pitch for the full ignition of 
the carbon. 

The conditions which thus seem to be necessary for obtain- 
ing the greatest portion of light from the combustion of a 
given quantity of gas, while they are perfectly consistent 
with the most anomalous facts presented by that process, so 
they appear to afford the only sure principles upon which we 
can proceed in the construction of gas-burners. One of the 
most obvious conclusions deducible from these principles is, 
that whatever be the form of the gas-burner its construction 
should be such that while it admits as much air as is neces- 
sary for the perfect combustion of the gas, it should never ad- 
mit more than is barely sufiicient for that purpose. 

According to the experiments of Drs. Christison and Tur- 



Gas — Burners. 287 

ner, the diameter best fitted for single-jet burners appears to 
be about one twenty-eighth of an inch for coal-gas, and one 
forty-fifth for oil-gas. As these dimensions, however, must 
vary with the quality of the gas, we consider one thirty-sixth 
of an inch to be more applicable to the gas obtained from 
cannel coal, if its specific gravity be not less than 'GS. 
Every form of burner composed of separate jets, in which 
the gas is made to issue in a horizontal or oblique direction, 
gives a consumption which increases in a much faster ratio 
than the light which it yields ; and consequently, however 
beautiful such burners may be in appearance, they are far 
from being economical. 

One of the most useful forms of a burner with single jets, 
is where there are two holes, and their directions are so in- 
clined as to cause the streams of issuing gas to cross, and 
exhibit during their combustion a broad continuous flame. 
This burner, which is termed a swallow-tail, is well adapted 
for street-lights, as it gives a powerful light and consumes a 
small quantity of gas. When the gas is emitted by a narrow 
slit at the top of the burner, the burner receives the name of 
a bat-iving. Specimens of common gas flames are represented 
in figs. 7, 8, 9. 

But of all the forms of the burner, that upon the Argand 
principle, in which the holes are arranged in a circle, d, fig, 
10, so as to allow the air to have access to the flame internally 
as well as externally, is the most economical, and the best 
calculated to secure the complete combustion of the gas. The 
diameter of the holes should, in this burner, be about the 
fortieth part of an inch for coal-gas of an ordinary good 
quality, and the distance between them should be such as to 
allow the separate flame of the diflerent jets to unite together 
and form a continuous hollow cylinder of light. In fig 10, 
a is the pipe which supplies the gas, and bb the channel up 
which it passes to the holes shown in the lower figure. 

The construction of burners, and the most economical 
mode of consuming gas, having been examined with much 
philosophical precision by Drs. Christison and Turner, we 
shall extract from their elaborate dissertation on the subject 
the most valuable and important conclusions which they have 
deduced from their experiments ; and this we do with great- 
er confidence, because the results they obtained coincide very 



288 



Five Black Arts. 



exactly with those which the writer of this article procured 
when engaged in the same inquiry. The three leading points 
to which they directed their attention were, Ist, the length 
of flame most suitable for different burners ; 2cZZ?/, the form, 
magnitude, and position of the orifices through which the gas 
is discharged, and Sdli/, the modifications of the light pro- 
duced by the glass chimney of the Argand burner. 

With regard to the length of flame which afforded the 
greatest light compared with the expenditure of gas, they 
found that, in the case of the jet, the best length for coal-gas 
was about five inches, and for oil-gas about four inches. 
When the flame was kept shorter, the quantity of gas con- 
sumed was greater in comparison of the light which it yield- 
ed ; but no advantage was gained by increasing the length 
beyond that mentioned as the most suitable for each gas ; the 
combustion becoming less perfect and beginning to be accom- 
panied with the escape of the carbon in the form of smoke. 
Thus they found that, in the case of coal-gas having the 
specific gravity -602, while the lights emitted from a two- 
inch and a five-inch flame were as 556 to 1978, the corres- 
ponding expenditures were to each other as 605 to 1437. 
But the light, in an economical point of view, must be estima- 
ted inversely as the quantity of gas from which it is obtained ; 
and hence the ratio of the lights, in reference to the expen- 



diture, was as 



12 as 100 to 150. 



In the case of Argand burners, the augmentation of the 
light in a ratio greater than the expenditure was exemplified 
in a still more remarkable degree. Thus the following results 
were obtained with coal-gas of the specific gravity -605, by 
elevating the flame of a five-holed burner, successively from 
half an inch to five inches : 



Length of Flame. 


Half- 
Inch. 


One- 
Inch. 


Two- 
Inch. 


Three- 
Inch. 


Four- 
Inch. 


Five- 
Inch. 


Light 


18-4 
83-7 


92-5 

148 


259-9 
203-3 


308-9 
241-4 


332-4 
265-7 


425-7 


Expenditure 


318-1 






Ratio of light to expendi- 1 
ture \ 


100 


282 


560 


582 


582 


604 



Hence the light is increased about six times for the same ex- 
penditure by raising the flame from half an inch to three or 



Gas — Burners. 289 

four inches ; but very little is gained by any additional increase 
of the flame beyond that length, in the description of burn- 
ers with which the experiments were made. 

These facts receive a satisfactory explanation from the 
general principles which we have already laid down with re- 
spect to the combustion of the lurainiferous gases. When the 
flame is short, the supply of oxygen for the combustion is too 
great ; almost the whole of the gas is thus consumed before 
any portion of it can undergo the decomposition which is 
necessary for the evolution of light ; while the temperature 
of the flame being reduced by the superfluous air which 
brushes along its surface, the intensity of ignition, and with 
it the splendor of the light, is proportionally diminished. 
This explanation is well illustrated by partially shutting the 
central part of the burner, and thus interrupting the supply of 
air to the internal surface of the flame ; the moment this is 
done, the length of the flame is increased, and a visible im- 
provement of the light takes place, thus indicating that more 
air was previously brought in contact with the gas than was 
requisite for its perfect combustion. 

The second point to which Drs. Christison and Turner 
directed their attention was the construction of the burner 
itself, particularly the magnitude and position of the orifices 
at which the gas is emitted during the combustion. The satiae 
principles which explained the relation between the light and 
the expenditure in the case of flames of different lengths, 
suggested the rule for regulating the dimensions of the orifices ; 
and accordingly they justly inferred that, in a single jet, 
the diameter of the aperture ought to be such as to ensure 
the complete combustion of the gas, without rendering it 
more vivid than is necessary for that effect. If the orifice be 
too small, the greater portion of the gas is liable to be con- 
sumed without suffering a previous decomposition, and thus 
the light is extremely feeble ; and, on the other hand, if. the 
orifice be too large, the surface of flame exposed to the action 
of the air being too small in comparison of the discharge of 
gas, the combustion is imperfect, and the carbon, after being 
separated from the hydrogen, either burns at a low tempera- 
ture with a dusky flame, or, what is still worse, a large por- 
tion of it passes off" in the state of smoke. In conformity 
19 



290 Five Black Arts. 

with these views, they recommend, as "we have already stated, 
a twenty-eighth of an inch for coal-gas, and a forty-fifth for 
oil-gas, as the most suitable dimensions for single jets. They 
acknowledge, however, that their experiments with coal-gas 
were too limited to justify them in using very confident lan- 
guage on the subject ; and we have therefore the less hesita- 
tion in stating that we consider an orifice varying in diameter 
from a thirty-second to a thirty-sixth of an inch as better 
adapted to coal-gas of a specific gravity between -62 and -70. 

In Argand burners the diameter of the orifices ought to be 
a little smaller. Drs. Christison and Turner state that the 
diameter which appeared to answer best for coal-gas of the 
specific gravity -6, when the holes are ten in a circle of 
three-tenths of an inch radius, was a thirty-second of an 
inch. We consider this, however, to be too great for coal-gas 
of a better quality, and would recommend, in preference, 
apertures varying in diameter from a thirty-sixth to a fortieth 
of an inch. 

The distance between the jet-holes of Argand burners 
is a matter of no less importance than the diameter of the 
orifices, and must be regulated by the same principles. 
When they are so far asunder that the flames of the separate 
jets do not coalesce, no advantage is derived from the Argand 
form ; but when they unite, and compose a uniform and un- 
broken surface of flame, the light is considerably greater, 
compared with the expenditure of gas, than is obtained from 
detached jets. In order to determine the most suitable dis- 
tance at which the orifices of Argand burners should be 
placed, Drs. Christison and Turner employed burners six- 
tenths of an inch in diameter, which they caused to be drilled 
with eight, ten, fifteen, twenty, and twenty-five holes, a fiftieth 
of an inch in diameter ; and having determined with each of 
these burners the light and expenditure in the case of oil-gas, 
they obtained the following results : 



Burners. 


VIII. 


X. 


XV. 


XX. 


XXV. 


Light 


360 
367 


360 
318 


391 

296 


409 

289 


882 




275 






Ratio of light to expenditure 


98 


113 


132 


141 


139 



As the standard of comparison was a single jet, burning 



Gas — Burners. 291 

with a four-inch flame, the ratio of the light yielded by which 
to the expenditure was expressed by 100, it was inferred that 
no advantage is gained by giving the jets the Argand ar- 
rangement with a burner of the dimensions above-mentioned 
if the holes are only eight in number ; and that the gain does 
not increase after the number reaches to twenty. In the for- 
mer case the distance of the holes must have been -2356 
inch, or nearly one-fourth of an inch, and, in the latter, 
•0945 ; so that the most advantageous distance for jet-holes 
of a fiftieth of an inch in diameter would seem to be about 
ylo-ths of an inch. For coal-gas burners, however, the dis- 
tance between the jet-holes ought to be increased in a ratio 
varying inversely with the quality of the gas, or directly as 
the diameters of the orifices themselves. Hence, if the coal- 
gas were of an ordinary quality, the jet-holes should not be 
less than one-eighth nor more than one-sixth of an inch from 
each other. 

The difference between the orifices being once assumed, 
serves to determine the diameter of the circle of holes. 
Thus, in a burner of eighteen holes, each a seventh of an 

inch asunder, the circumference ought to be 18 X ;^ = 2*57 

inches, and consequently the diameter of the circle of holes 

2-57 
should be , ^ .^ „ = -818 inch. If the breadth of the rim 
d*141o 

be supposed to be a tenth of an inch, and perhaps it ought 
not to exceed that quantity, it may be proper, in the case of 
the larger burners, to contract the lower part of the central 
air-hole, on account of the supply of air to the inside surface 
of the flame increasing in a faster ratio than the number of 
jets. 

The only remaining point to be considered with respect to 
the burner is the glass chimney, which serves at once to pro- 
tect the flame from irregular currents of air, and to convey 
to the gas a due supply of it during combustion. When the 
interval between the chimney and the external part of the 
flame is too great, the tendency of the air to flow through the 
air-hole is diminished, and the flame contracts toward the top, 
where it yields a dusky light, and indicates a disposition to 
smoke. The diameter of the chimney should therefore be 
reduced until it is perceived that the upper part of the flame 



292 Five Black Arts. 

is enlarged and acquires the same diameter as the lower part. 
When this is the case, the color of the flame is improved in 
brightness, and none of the carbon is uselessly wasted in 
the formation of smoke. On the other hand, if the supply 
of air to the external surface of the flame be diminished be- 
yond a certain extent, either by reducing the diameter of 
the glass chimney, or by any other means, the flux of air 
through the central air-hole is unduly increased, the flame 
diverges in the form of a tulip till it touches the chimney, 
and the supply of air to the outside of the flame being thus 
interrupted, smoke is again produced. Hence the greatest 
degree of light, in relation to the expenditure of gas, may be 
expected to be obtained when the supply of air to the exter- 
nal and internal surface of the flame is so adjusted by the 
diameter of the chimney that the flame is perfectly cylindri- 
cal, neither burning with too much vivacity, nor showing any 
tendency to smoke. The length of the glass chimney is of 
much less importance than its diameter, and may vary from 
five to six inches. 

A cylindrical chimney, however, is the least advantageous 
form that can be adopted. If the chimney be tall and narrow, 
and contracted toward the top, as in a, fig. 11, or suddenly 
contracted near the bottom, as in b, the draught is increased 
and the light improved. It is also useful to contract the 
diameter of the glass chimney about a couple of inches above 
the burner, as at c, so as to form a shoulder a few lines in 
width, the eflect of which is to change the direction of the 
draught and project it on the flame at a certain angle. 

In the Bude light proposed by Gurney, oxygen gas instead 
of air was passed through the flame, the effect of which was 
greatly to increase its brilliancy. In the Bude light as now 
constructed, there are two, three, or more concentric burners 
with chimneys supplied with common air, and a dioptric appa- 
ratus. 

Attempts have been made of late years to ventilate gas- 
burners so as to get rid of the injurious products of combustion. 
One part by weight of good coal-gas produces nearly three 
parts by weight of carbonic acid, which produces many dis- 
tressing symptoms when breathed with the air of the room. 
Sulphurous acid, and other compounds which are not entirely 
removed in the purification of the gas, form deleterious pro- 



Gas — Burners. 293 

ducts during the combustion of the gas. The sulphurous 
acid forms sulphuric acid, which exerts a corrosive action on 
the walls and furniture, books, pictures, etc., while the hy- 
drogen of the gas produces vapor of water which serves as a 
vehicle for some of the other products. To get rid of these 
noxious fumes a bell-shaped vessel is sometimes suspended 
over the chimney, and is connected with a tube leading into 
the open air. Unless this tube be judiciously arranged the 
condensed water may accumulate in it, and cause inconven- 
ience. By a contrivance of Dr. Faraday, a copper tube of 
about the same diameter as the flame is conducted from its 
summit out of the apartment ; the heat of this tube establishes 
a rapid current, which serves to convey away the products. 
The same distinguished chemist invented another contrivance, 
by which the ventilating current is made to descend between 
two concentric glass chimneys of different heights, the outer 
one being the taller, and this is covered with a disc of talc. 
When the current reaches the bottom of the space between 
the two glasses, it is conveyed away by a ventilating tube 
which bends upward. The descending current is first estab- 
lished by applying heat to the bend of the ventilating tube 
where it begins to ascend ; Avhen this current is established 
the gas is lighted, and the plate of talc is put on : the pro- 
ducts of combustion are conveyed into a box, from which pro- 
ceeds a pipe for conveying the vapors outside. A globe of 
ground glass open only at the bottom is placed over the lamp. 
The accumulation of condensed water in different parts of 
this apparatus is said to have greatly interfered with its 
successful action. 

Mr. R. Brown of Manchester has a contrivance for venti- 
lating by means of gas. Through an opening in the ceiling 
a wide tube is passed, one end of which conveys the foul air 
outside, and the other projects a little below the level of the 
ceiling. The gas-pipe enters on one side, and is bent so as 
to hang perpendicularly in the center of the tube, and has 
an annular burner at the lower extremity, surrounded by a 
glass chimney, which is supported on the top on a metal cone 
piece, secured to the lower extremity of the tube by screws. 
This arrangement is surrounded by a hemispherical glass 
shade with its mouth uppermost, and a few inches below the 
level of the ceiling. The air of the apartment passes off in 



294 Five Black Arts. 

the strong draught occasioned by the burner, and a fresh 
supply of air is admitted at the lower part of the room. 

Oil- Gas, Resin-G-as, and Water- Gas. 

When tallow or oleaginous matter of any kind is raised to 
a certain temperature, it is resolved into various gases, of 
which the compounds of carbon and hydrogen, viz., olefiant 
gas or bicarburetted hydrogen, and lighted carburetted hydro- 
gen, are the principal, both in point of quantity and quality, 
for the purposes of illumination. As oil contains in its com- 
position a portion of oxygen, existing most probably in union 
with hydrogen in the state of water, that substance also yields, 
during its destructive distillation, a considerable quantity of 
carbonic oxide, as well as traces of carbonic acid, hydrogen, 
and even nitrogen. With these products, all of which are 
of a determinate character, is found in greater or less abund- 
ance a quantity of a very inflammable vapor,* which seems 
to be a compound of carbon and hydrogen. 

Oil-gas owes its illuminating power chiefly to the proportion 
of olefiant gas which it contains, and the oleaginous vapor 
which is diffused through it ; and as both of these ingredients 
vary in quantity with the temperature at which the decom- 
position is effected, the quality of the oil-gas is extremely fluc- 
tuating. When the temperature is too high, a portion of the 
olefiant gas and oleaginous vapor is resolved, by the deposition 
of carbon, into light carburetted hydrogen ; and though the 
quantity of gas from a given portion of oil is thus increased, the 
quality of it is diminished in a still higher ratio. On the other 
hand, if the temperature be rather too low, a larger quantity of 
olefiant gas, mixed with a greater proportion of oleaginous va- 
por, is obtained ; but as the latter is gradually and rapidly con- 
densed when the gas is allowed to stand over water, the hi3:her 



*The oleaginous vapor alluded to consists, according to the experiments 
of Mr. Faraday, of two distinct compounds of carbon and hydrogen. One 
of these he terms biearburet of hydrogen, which, by his analysis, is composed 
of six proportions of carbou and three of hydrogen. The other compound, 
to which Dr. Thomson has given the name of quadro-carhurdted hydrogen, 
consists of four proportions of carbon and four proportions of hydrogen, 
existing in a different state of aggregation from that in which they exist in 
olefiant gas, the elementary constituents of which are in the same propor- 
tion. 



Gas — Kinds. 295 

illuminating power of this richer gas is more than counterbal- 
anced by the deficiency in its quantity, and the deterioration 
to which it is liable by keeping. 

We are indebted to Dr. Henry of Manchester for the first 
analysis of the aeriform compounds obtained by the decom- 
position of oil by heat ; and though his elaborate researches 
can scarcely be said to have led to the determination of the 
precise products of that decomposition, they furnish data from 
which their true nature may be inferred, with a probability 
nearly as great as that which belongs to the results of direct 
experiment. The principal difficulty of the analysis consists 
in determining the condition in which the elementary princi- 
ples of carbon and hydrogen exist in union with each other, 
and reconciling the various suppositions that may be made 
respecting the compounds thus formed, with the specific 
gravity which belongs to the original gas, supposed to be 
produced by their mixture. 

The results of Dr. Henry's first experiments were published 
in 1805 ; but it was not till about ten years after that period 
that an apparatus for decomposing oil, on a large scale for 
economical purposes, was constructed. 

Oil being decomposed at a loss of nearly fifty per cent., 
the conversion of it into gas, after a protracted but ineffectual 
competition with coal, was gradually abandoned on the large 
scale, even in those places where, from the interest they had 
in the whale-fisheries, there was the strongest inducement to 
foster the prejudices which prevailed for some time against 
the use of coal-gas. The exaggerated advantages which it was 
pretended would be derived from compressing oil-gas and thus 
rendering it portable, served to prolong the delusions on the 
subject ; nor were these delusions fully removed until a de- 
monstration was given of the failure of the scheme, in the 
decay of the costly edifices and expensive apparatus which 
had been constructed for carrying it into effect. The late 
Professor Daniell of King's College, London, also contrived 
an ingenious form of apparatus for making gas from resin ; 
but the plan did not succeed on account of the impossibilty 
of competing with the coal-gas works. 

Of late years a new process of gas-making has been much 
discussed, and has formed the subject of a variety of patents. 
It is known as the hydrocarbon process of gas-making, or 



296 Five Black Arts. 

more briefly water-gas. The principle of the manufacture 
is to pass steam over red-hot coke, by which it is resolved into 
hydrogen and carbonic oxide, and then to supply these in- 
flammable gases with the carbon required for their illuminating 
power, by passing them through a retort in which oil, resin, 
tar, naptha, cannel coal, or some other carbonaceous substance, 
is undergoing decomposition by heat. The process does not 
appear to have been successful with resin, but better results 
seem to have been attained with cannel coal. 

Methods for determining the Illuminating Power of the 
Gases. 

Having described the various manipulations by which gas is 
prepared, both from coal and oil, we now proceed to explain 
the methods which have been adopted for determining their 
respective illuminating powers ; it being by these methods that 
■we acquire a knowledge of one of the most important tests by 
which the comparative value of the gases can be ascertained. 

The first and most obvious of these tests is to determine 
the intensity of the light which the gases are capable of 
diffusing during their combustion, upon a white and smooth 
surface directly exposed to its emanations. The determination 
of that intensity is obtained with a considerable degree of 
accuracy, not by a direct comparison of the degree of illu- 
mination shed on two separate surfaces, but by means of a 
contrivance, first proposed by Count Rumford, which allows 
the illuminated surfaces to be contrasted with each other on 
the same ground, and so closely adjoining that the eye can 
readily detect a slight difference between them. This con- 
trivance is as follows : Let A and B, fig. 12, be two luminous 
objects ; EF a smooth and white surface, having the same 
inclination to the rays of light emitted by A and B ; and CD 
an opaque cylindrical rod parallel to the surface EF ; then 
it is evident that aa and bb will be the shadows of CD, in 
reference to the lights A and B. But the shadow aa being 
illuminated by the light B, and the shadow bb by the light A, 
it follows that if these shadows be perfectly the same in point 
of intensity of shade, the light yielded by A and B must be 
the same in degree. If the shadows, however, be different, 
one of the lights must be removed either further from EF or 



GAS.] 



[ PlATX 4. 



— 







Fiytl 


I 


ill 



1-1 

II 



' r^f2 



fi» 




Gas — Illuminating Power. 297 

brought nearer to it, until the shades seem to be exactly alike, 
when the light shed upon EF by A and B must, in point of 
intensity, be, as before, the same. But the intensity of light, 
like that of other emanations proceeding in straight lines from 
a central point, being inversely as the square of the distance, 
the relative degrees of light emitted by A and B must, in 
conformity with that principle, be proportional to the squares 
of their respective distances from the surface on which the 
shadows are projected. Thus, if the light A were at the 
distance of fifteen feet, and the light B at the distance of 
twenty- five feet, their relative illuminating powers would be 
as the square of fifteen to the square of twenty-five ; that is, 
as 225 to t)25, or as 9 to 25. As the quantity of gas con- 
sumed in the same time to yield the supposed lights might be 
diflf'^rent, it is evident that a correct estimate of the absolute 
value of the gases for the purpose of illumination would not 
be duly determined unless that circumstance were also taken 
into account. But the economical value of the gases, yielding 
equal degrees of light, being inversely as the quantities con- 
sumed, it follows that that value will be directly as the squares 
of the distances at which the shadows are the same, and in- 
versely as the rate of consumption. Thus, if we now sup- 
pose that the gas yielding the light A consumed three cubic 
feet in the same time that the gas yielding the light B con- 
sumed five cubic feet, the value of the former would be to 
that of the latter as ~ is to V? or as three to five. In ob- 
taining the necessary data for determining the ratio of the 
lights, it may be proper to add that the screen on which the 
shadows are projected should be guarded with the utmost 
care from all extraneous light. If it be desired to contrast 
the illuminating power of a gas-light with that of a candle, 
the comparison is easily made. If, for example, the gas-light 
give a shadow equal to that of a candle placed at one-third 
the distance, the light of the gas is equal to the light of nine 
candles. If the candle be placed at one-fourth the distance 
of the gas-light, the latter is equal to sixteen candles, and 
so on. 

Professor Bunson of Marburg has contrived a photometer 
which is now in common use in gas-works. The principle of 
this instrument is not the comparison by shadows, which 
forms a delicate experiment, but a comparison of light trans- 



298 Five Black Arts. 

mitted through a translucent surface with light reflected from 
an opaque surface. For this purpose a disc of paper, TO, 
fig. 13, is placed between the two lights to be compared ; an 
annular portion of this paper T is made translucent bj means 
of melted spermaceti, or that substance dissolved in oil of 
naptha, while a central disc of the paper being left un- 
touched by the composition, remains opaque. Fine cream- 
colored letter-paper answers the purpose very well, and the 
central opaque disc may be about the size of half-a-crown. 
Now it is evident that the translucent ring will be illuminated 
by a light behind the disc, while the opaque portion is illumi- 
nated by a light in front. The frame on which the disc is 
mounted is moved backward and forward on a graduated bar 
BB between the two lights until the transmitted and reflected 
lights appear of the same intensity. The pointer P then shows 
the division over which the disc stands. Under such circum- 
stances, the lights are to each other in the ratio of the squares 
of their distance from the disc 

The determination of the intensity of light by the above 
simple means is capable, under careful management, of all 
the precision which the nature of the problem requires ; it 
is even preferred by engineers to the more elaborate method 
of chemical analysis. The latter method has for its object 
to ascertain the relative value of the gases used for illumina- 
tion, by finding the quantity of defiant gas which they con- 
tain under equal volumes ; it being assumed that the illu- 
minating power of the compound combustible gases derived 
from the decomposition of oil and pit-coal is directly propor- 
tional to the quantity of that gas existing in their constitution. 
Though that supposition is by no means a matter of certainty, 
or even of probability, we shall nevertheless briefly explain the 
mode of analysis Avhich has been recommended. According 
to the experiments of Dr. Henry, chlorine has no action upon 
any of the gases obtained from oil or coal when the influence 
of light is carefully excluded, with the exception of defiant 
gas ; and as chlorine and defiant gas unite together in equal 
volumes, this property affords an easy mode of determining 
the quantity of the latter which may exist in any compound 
gas of which it forms a constituent part. AH that is required 
for the purpose is to add somewhat more chlorine than is ab- 
solutely necessary for uniting with the olefiant gas, and to 



Gas — Illuminating Power. 299 

allow the mixture to remain about fifteen minutes completely 
excluded from light. The extent of absorption being thus 
observed, half the quantity of the gas which has disappeared 
of the whole mixture will be olefiant gas. Thus, if twenty 
parts of chlorine by measure were added to twenty-five of 
coal-gas, and if the mixture, after being allowed to remain a 
sufiicient length of time in the dark, were found to occupy 
thirty-six measures, the absorption would be nine measures, 
and consequently the coal-gas must have contained four and 
a half measures of olefiant gas, or eighteen per cent. The 
quantity per cent, of olefiant gas is determined without cal- 
culation, by adding to fifty measures of the gas to be ana- 
lyzed an equal volume of chlorine ; when the diminution of 
volume in the graduated jar, is the quantity which the gas 
contains per cent, of olefiant gas. Dr. Fyfe states that the 
illuminating power of the diflferent specimens of oil and coal- 
gas which he subjected to this test bore a pretty exact ratio 
to the quantity of olefiant gas which they contained. One 
great advantage to be derived from this method of testing the 
quality of any species of carburetted hydrogen containing 
olefiant gas in its composition, is, that it admits of a comparison 
being made between gases in different places and at different 
times, without the necessity of transporting them to a distance, 
and making a simultaneous examination of their illuminating 
properties. 

Of late years, bromine has been substituted for chlorine in 
the above analysis. The gas is passed up into a eudiometer 
tube, and the carbonic acid is removed by means of caustic 
potash : a small portion of bromine is dropped in and shaken 
in contact with the gas. Potash is again added to remove 
the bromine vapors, and the absorption is then noted. It is 
stated that some of the highly illuminating cannel-coal gases 
are condensed by this process as much as 12 or 14 per cent. ; 
while some of the poorer gases not more than 4 or 5 per 
cent. 

The specific gravity of oil and coal gas, and the quantity 
of oxygen which they require for their perfect combustion, 
have also been proposed as means of ascertaining their illumi- 
nating powers. The latter, however, even if it were a correct 
test, is determined with considerable difficulty ; and that little 
reliance can be placed on the former may be inferred from 



300 Five Black Arts. 

the fact that some of the gases which are component parts of 
oil and coal gas have a great specific gravity without posses- 
sing any illuminating power. This will readily be perceived 
from the subjoined table : 

Quantity of 
Gases. Specific Gravity. Oxygeu for 

100 volume*. 

Olefiant gas -970 300 

Carburetted hydrogen -556 300 

Hydrogen -069 50 

Carbonic oxide -972 50 

Carbonic acid 1-538 None. 

Of these gases, carbonic oxide and carbonic acid possess 
the greatest specific gravity ; while the latter is not only des- 
titute of illuminating property, but calculated, as we shall 
afterward show, to deteriorate to a great extent the quality 
of the luminiferous gases with which it may happen to be 
mixed. 

There are cases, however, in which it is necessary to de- 
termine accurately the composition of a sample of coal-gas, 
and the following is the now generally adopted method of 
conducting the analysis.* The ingredients or impurities which 
may be present in the gas are — 1, Common hydrogen ; 2, 
olefiant gas and other hydrocarbons ; 3, light carburetted 
hydrogen ; 4, carbonic oxide ; 5, carbonic acid ; 6, sulphur- 
etted hydrogen ; 7, ammonia ; 8, oxygen and nitrogen 
derived from the atmosphere. A qualitative examination is 
made thus — the proportion of ammonia and of sulphuretted 
hydrogen is usually very minute, and in most cases these 
gases must be sought for by placing the tests for their presence 
for some time in a current of the gas. In searching for 
ammonia a piece of moistened litmus paper feebly reddened 
is placed for a minute in a jet of the issuing gas. If the< 
blue color be restored, ammonia is present. Paper soaked 
in a solution of acetate of lead may be subjected to a similar 
trial. If it turn brown, sulphuretted hydrogen is present. 
The presence of oxygen is detected by admitting a bubble of 
the deutoxide of nitrogen into a tube filled with the gas under 
trial, and looking through the tube obliquely upon a sheet of 
white paper ; very small traces of oxygen may thus be de- 

* Abridged from Elements of Chemistry, by Professor Miller, of King's 
College, London. 



Gas — Illuminating Power. 301 

tected bj the red tinge produced, owing to the formation of 
peroxide of nitrogen. The presence of carbonic acid may 
be readily detected by throwing up a little lime water, or 
solution of sub-acetate of lead, into the gas whilst standing 
in a tube over mercury. The existence of the other gases 
may be assumed, as they are certain to be present in greater 
or less quantity. The sulphuretted hydrogen and ammonia 
being neglected, and supposing that oxygen and carbonic 
acid are found to be present, seven different gases are there- 
fore supposed to exist in the mixture. The following method 
may be adopted for their quantitative determination : — 
1. Oxygen. — A volume of the gas is confined over mercury, 
and its bulk is measured with due attention to temperature 
and pressure. A piece of moist phosphorus, which has been 
melted upon the end of a long platinum wire to serve as a 
handle, is introduced from below through the mercury into 
the tube. After twenty-four hours the phosphorus is with- 
drawn, when the amount of absorption indicates the propor- 
tion of oxygen which was present. 2. Carbonic Acid. — 
This gas is determined in a similar manner, substituting a ball 
of caustic potash for the phosphorus ; the second diminution 
in bulk shows the proportion of carbonic acid. 3. Olefiant 
Gas and Heavy Hydrocarbons. — These gases are absorbed 
by introducing a thii'd ball, consisting of porous coke, mois- 
tened with fuming sulphuric acid. It is necessary, however, 
before reading off the volume of the gas, to introduce a ball 
of potash a second time, to withdraw the vapor of an hy- 
drous sulphuric acid, which possesses sufficient volatility to 
introduce a serious error by dilating the bulk of the gas, un- 
less it be completely removed. The total amount of ab- 
sorption will indicate the proportion of olefiant gas, together 
with the vapors of condensible hydrocarbons. 4. Carbonic 
Oxide. — The separation of carbonic oxide from the other 
gases is not easily done with accuracy. The gas may be di- 
vided into two portions, one of which is to be carefully 
measured as it stands over mercury, and a small quantity of 
a solution of subchloride of copper in hydrochloric acid is to 
be added, and the mixture briskly agitated ; the gas is then 
transferred to a second graduated tube, also standing over 
mercury, and a ball of potash is introduced for the purpose 
of absorbing the vapors of hydrochloric acid with which the 



302 Five Black Arts. 

gas is saturated ; the bulk of the gas may then be read off, 
and the volume of carbonic acid may be known by the loss 
in bulk. 5. Nitrogen, Carluretted Hydrogen, and Hydro- 
gen. — In determining the proportion of these gases, that of 
carbonic oxide may also be ascertained, for which purpose a 
portion of coal-gas, in which the carbonic oxide is still present, 
is transferred to a siphon-eudiometer, and its bulk is measured : 
it is then mixed with twice its volume of oxygen, and the 
bulk of the mixed gases is again measured : the mixture is 
then exploded by means of the electric spark, and the bulk 
is a third time measured : call this diminution in bulk a, next 
inject a small quantity of a strong solution of potash, and 
the resulting condensation due to the absorption of carbonic 
acid may be called 5; the remaining gases, c, consist of oxygen 
in excess and nitrogen ; the quantity of oxygen in excess is 
ascertained by mixing the residual gas with twice its bulk 
of pure hydrogen, and a second time causing the electric 
spark to pass ; one-third of the condensation observed will 
be due to the excess of oxygen ; on deducting this excess 
from the residue e, the difference gives the quantity of nitro- 
gen. The difference between the amount of the oxygen thus 
found to be in excess, and that originally introduced, will of 
course represent the quantity of oxygen consumed ; call this 
d. We have now all the data for calculating the proportion 
of carburetted hydrogen, of hydrogen, and of carbonic oxide, 
which are present in the mixture. Let x represent the 
quantity of light carburetted hydrogen ; this gas requires 
twice its own volume of oxygen for complete combustion, and 
furnishes its own volume of carbonic acid, which requires an 
equal volume of oxygen for its formation, or half the amount 
consumed ; the other half of the oxygen being required by 
the hydrogen, which condenses in the form of water, 2 x will 
be the diminution in bulk of oxygen which occurs on dotona-' 
tion. Again, when hydrogen is converted into water, it re- 
quires half its bulk of oxygen, and both are condensed 

entirely. If y represent the bulk of the hydrogen, -~ will 

be the diminution in bulk of the mixed gases on detonation, 
which is occasioned be the hydrogen in the mixture. Let z 
represent the volume of carbonic oxide present ; carbonic 
oxide, for conversion into carbonic acid, requires half its bulk 



Gas — Hints RESPECTiNa. 303 

of oxygen, the carbonic acid produced occupying the same 

bulk as the carbonic oxide. - will therefore indicate the 

A 

condensation which occurs on firing the mixture. The total 
condensation in bulk (a) which occurs on firing a mixture of 
light carburetted hydrogen, hydrogen, and carbonic oxide, 
will consequently admit of thus being represented — 

(l.)a = 2. + | + |. 

Further, the quantity of the carbonic acid formed by detona- 
tion, 6, is composed of a volume of carbonic acid equal in 
bulk to the light carburetted hydrogen, and a volume equal 
to that of the carbonic oxide, so that the quantity of carbonic 
acid may be thus indicated — 

(2.) h=^x-\z. 
And lastly, the oxygen consumed, c?, will be composed of the 
following quantities : Light carburetted hydrogen, twice its 

bulk, 2 a;; hydrogen half its bulk, ^ ; carbonic oxide, half 

its bulk, - ; or the total quantity of oxygen consumed will 

be the following : 

(3.; c = 2x+| + |. 

From these three equations the values of x^ y, z, are deter- 
mined : 

a-\-h 



y = a — c 



Hints respecting the Improvement of Coal- Cras. 

Of all the combustible bodies having an elementary charac- 
ter, carbon and hydrogen are not only the most widely and 
copiously diffused throughout the three kingdoms of nature, 



304 Five Black Arts. 

but best adapted for the evolution of light during their com- 
bustion. It is only, however, when they are united together 
in due proportion that they answer the purpose most effectu- 
ally : and, indeed, in a separate state their illuminating powers 
are so feeble, that even when their combustion is accelerated 
and rendered more perfect by the presence of oxygen, the 
light which they yield is yet unfit for many of the useful ends 
to which light is subservient. The substances in which carbon 
and hydrogen are united in the best proportion for the pro- 
duction of light are pit-coal in the mineral kingdom, and oils 
and fatty matter in the animal and vegetable. 

The great abundance of coal, and the comparative cheapness 
at which it can be obtained, give it a decided advantage in point 
of economy over oleaginous matter,whether of animal or vege- 
table origin; while the processes of decomposing it, with the 
view of converting it into a volatile and elastic product, have 
been so much improved as to render the gas which it yields 
equally fit for the purposes of illumination with the more costly 
gases obtained from the oils. 

The gas produced by the decomposition of coal and oleagi- 
nous matter at a high temperature is a compound of carbon and 
hydrogen, and consists chiefly of two gases, in which these 
elementary substances exist in definite proportions. One of 
these gases is termed carburetted hydrogen, and the other 
olefiant gas or bicarburetted hydrogen. The former contains 
one atom of carbon united with two atoms of hydrogen, and 
the latter an atom of each of these elements. 

Of these two compounds of hydrogen and carbon, that 
which contains the largest proportion of the latter element is 
found to yield during its combustion the most brilliant light, 
and that too for a longer period of time. And, indeed, so 
great is the difference in these respects, that the hydrogen 
may not improperly be regarded as the mere solvent or ve- 
hicle of the carbon, acting the part of wick, and thus pre- 
senting that substance in a state sufficiently comminuted for 
its more perfect combustion. Accordingly, the more abun- 
dantly the hydrogen is impregnated with carbon the greater 
may we expect to be its illuminating power, and the fitter in 
every respect for yielding artificial light. These views are 
fully supported by experiment ; for not only is the brilliancy 
of the light modified by the quantity of carbon held in solu- 



Gas — Hints Respecting. 305 

tion by the hydrogen, but the time which a given portion of 
the gas takes to consume away by combustion is affected by 
it in a still greater degree. 

To determine in what ratio the illuminating power of the 
gases obtained both from oil and coal was reduced by diluting 
them in various proportions with hydrogen, we instituted a 
series of experiments, the results of which are of importance . 
inasmuch as they indicate not only that the mixture is dete- 
riorated, but that the same quantity of carbonaceous matter 
yields less light the more largely it is diluted with hydrogen. 
In the first experiment we took a portion of coal-gas of 
the specific gravity '67, which we found to consume at the 
rate of 4400 cubic inches per hour, and yielded the light of 
eleven candles, being 400 cubic inches per hour for the light 
of one candle. This gas being diluted with a fourth part of 
its bulk of pure hydrogen, acquired the specific gravity '55, 
and wasted away at the rate of 6545 cubic inches per hour, 
yielding the light of ten candles. As a fifth part of the 
compound gas was hydrogen, the remaining four-fifths, amount- 
ing to 5236 cubic inches, was the quantity of the coal-gas which 
in its diluted state gave the light of ten candles for an hour ; 
so that 524 cubic inches of the original coal-gas were requisite 
to give the light of one candle for the same time. But in its 
unmixed state, 400 cubic inches were sufficient to give the 
light of one candle for an hour ; and, consequently, the de- 
terioration occasioned by the dilution was in the ratio of 524 
to 400, or of 100 to 76, being 24 per cent. It must be 
distinctly kept in view that the deterioration has been reck- 
oned, not with respect to the whole volume of the mixture 
(in which case it would have been 39 per cent.), but simply 
in reference to the coal-gas itself ; and therefore the experi- 
ment, so far as it goes, justifies us in adopting the conclusion, 
that had the hydrogen existed originally in union with the 
coal-gas, the latter would have improved in quality 24 per 
cent, by its abstraction ; because the residuary portion would 
not only have lasted longer, but yielded during its combustion 
a superior light. 

In a second experiment, conducted in a similar manner, in 
which the proportion of hydrogen was one-third of the quan- 
tity of the coal-gas, the deterioration was 27 per cent. ; in 
a third experiment, the proportion of hydrogen being a half of 
20 



306 Five Black Arts. 

the volume of the coal-gas, the deterioration amounted to 31 
per cent. ; and in a fourth experiment, the quantity of hydro- 
gen being exactly equal to that of the coal-gas, the deterio- 
ration extended to 36 per cent. 

These results indicate a progressive deterioration in the 
quality of coal-gas by the admixture of hydrogen ; and the 
important conclusion to which they lead is, that the abstrac- 
tion or removal of the latter, though diminishing the entire 
volume, would improve the nature of the residuary portion 
not only in a higher ratio than the loss which the whole sus- 
tained in its bulk, but render that portion capable of yielding, 
for a longer period of time, a greater light than it could have 
done in its original state. Hence it may be inferred that the 
illuminating power of coal-gas, whether considered with re- 
spect to the cost of its production or the intensity of its light, 
admits of being improved ; first, by impregnating the hydro- 
geneous element more largely with carbon ; secondly, by 
preventing the disengagement of hydrogen in a free state 
during the carbonization of the coal ; and, lastly, by detach- 
ing a portion of that gas from coal-gas when it already exists 
in admixture with it. 

The first of these modes of improvement seems to be prac- 
ticable, at least to a certain extent, by thoroughly drying the 
coal before it is introduced into the retorts, and modifying the 
pressure under which the gas is generated ; the second, by 
preventing the gas after its formation from being exposed to 
a high temperature by allowing it to pass over very hot sur- 
faces, the effect of which is to deprive it of carbon. The 
second object may also be assisted by arresting the process of 
distillation at an earlier period than is usually practiced, hy- 
drogen and carbonic oxide being the products which predomi- 
nate during the last periods of decomposition. On this point, 
however, the interests of the public and of the manufacturer 
are at variance. The consumer pays by measure, and hence 
it is the interest of the manufacturer to carry on the process 
of distillation as long as possible, for, by so doing, not only 
does he increase the quantity of gas but he improves the 
quality of the coke. With respect to the third mode of 
improvement, we are unfortunately, in the present state of 
our knowledge, acquainted with no method of detaching 
hydrogen from the gases with which it is mixed in oil or coal 



Gas — Hints Respecting. 307 

gas that would not impair the illuminating power of these 
gases to a greater extent perhaps than the benefit that would 
be derived from the removal of the hydrogen. A plan has 
been proposed by Mr. Lowe to increase the quantity of car- 
bon in the gas by impregnating it with the vapor of coal nap- 
tha ; for which purpose it was proposed to fill the wet gas 
meter at the house of the consumer with purified naptha, and 
to maintain it at the same height by means of a reservoir 
connected with the meter, by which means the gas would be 
measured and saturated with naptha at the same time. A 
more practical plan was to pass the gas through an ornamental 
vase containing a sponge saturated with naptha, and placed 
at some point between the meter and the burner. 

To determine the diminution of the illuminating power 
produced .by separating the particles of the inflammable gas 
during its combustion, and thus diminishing the temperature 
of the flame, it occurred to the writer of the present article 
that nitrogen, having neither the property of supporting com- 
bustion nor of adding to the quantity of combustible matter sub- 
mitted to that process, was well fitted to answer for the intend- 
ed purpose ; and, accordingly, on mixing coal-gas of ordinary 
quality (which, when burnt alone, yielded the light of twelve 
candles when it consumed 5400 cubic inches per hour) with 
varying portions of nitrogen, results were obtained which im- 
plied that the diminution of the intensity of the light proceed- 
ed in a ratio much more rapid than was observed when the 
gas was diluted with hydrogen. Thus, when six volumes of 
the coal-gas were mixed with one volume of nitrogen, the 
expenditure per hour was 6000 cubic inches, and the light 
equivalent to that of nine candles, being 667 cubic inches 
per hour for the light of one candle. But one-sixth of the 
whole being nitrogen, the remaining five-sixths, amounting 
to 566 cubic inches, was the quantity of the coal-gas which, 
in its diluted state, afforded the light of a candle for an hour. 
On the other hand, the quantity of the coal-gas requisite, in 
its unadulterated state, to give an equal degree of illumina- 
tion being Hf % ov 450 cubic inches, it follows that the de- 
terioration was in the ratio of 556 to 450, or 100 to 81 
nearly. 

By diluting the same coal-gas with other proportions of 
nitrogen as subjoiiied, and afterward applying to each of the 



308 Five Black Arts. 

results the same kind of reduction as that which we have al- 
ready made, we have deduced the following table, which ex- 
hibits the gradual deterioration of the illuminating power of 
the same quantity of coal-gas, produced by the mere separa- 
tion of the atoms of the gas during its combustion. 



Volumes of 


Volumes of 


Illuminating 


Coal-gas. 


Nitrogen. 


Power, 


60 





100 


60 


10 


81 


60 


12 


69 


60 


15 


55 


60 


20 


3T 


60 


30 


29 


60 


60 


4 



When carbonic acid was used instead of nitrogen, similar 
results were obtained ; only the deterioration was considerably 
greater. Thus, when five volumes of the coal-gas were mixed 
with one volume of carbonic acid, the illuminating power was 
reduced from 100 to 30, whereas in the case of the nitrogen 
it was from 100 to 69. It is therefore a fortunate circum- 
stance that carbonic acid, which is so apt to be generated 
during the production of coal-gas, and has so debasing an 
influence upon its illuminating power, is readily absorbed by 
a variety of substances ; while nitrogen, the less injurious as 
well as the less abundant accompaniment, cannot be separated 
from the other gases with which it may exist in mixture by 
any process yet known. 

Deterioration of Cfas hy keeping it after it is prepared. 

Both oil and coal gas suffer, by keeping, a gradual loss in 
their power of illumination, which seems to increase in a more 
rapid ratio than the time they are kept. The deterioration, 
though greatest when the gases are allowed to stand over 
water, takes place in a considerable degree even when they 
are kept over oil, or in air-tight vessels. Hence it may be 
presumed that the carbon held in solution by the hydrogen 
is separated from that element, partly by its own gravity, and 
partly perhaps by solution in the water, or by condensation 
in the liquid form. 



Gas — Economy. 309 

To whatever cause the deterioration is owing, the fact itself 
is undoubted. Thus, an oil-gas which, when newly prepared, 
had the specific gravity 1-054, gave the light of a candle for 
an hour when it consumed 200 cubic inches ; kept two days, 
it gave the same light with a consumpt of 215 cubic inches 
per hour ; and kept four days, it required for the same light 
240 cubic inches per hour. In the case of a portion of coal- 
gas, which, when newly prepared, required 404 cubic inches 
to yield the light of a candle for an hour, the same gas kept 
two days required 430 cubic inches ; and kept four days, 
460 cubic inches to yield the same light. These results in- 
dicate a progressive deterioration in the quality of the gases, 
increasing with the length of time they are kept ; and it is 
deserving of remark, that in both gases the diminution of the 
illuminating power decreases in a faster ratio than the time 
increases. After being kept three weeks, the oil-gas was so 
much debased in quality that it required 606 cubic inches of 
it to yield the light of a candle for an hour ; and hence its 
illuminating power was reduced to one-third of what it was 
when the gas was newly made. From these experiments it 
may obviously be inferred that both oil and coal gas should 
be used as soon as possible after they are prepared. 

Economy of Coal- Gas. 

Among the advantages which have resulted from the intro- 
duction of coal-gas, we may reckon, first, its comparative 
cheapness ; and, secondly, its superiority to all the other 
modes of artificial illumination. 

In forming a comparative estimate of the cost of coal-gas 
and that of the other means employed for procuring artificial 
light, we may contrast it with the expense of wax, tallow, and 
oil, the ordinary substances used for the purpose. It deserves 
to be remarked, however, that while the price of coal, in 
consequence of the regular and abundant supply of that 
article, is liable to little fluctuation, the cost of wax, tallow, 
and oil, on account of the more precarious nature of the 
sources from which they are obtained, varies exceedingly in 
different seasons. The very extensive use, too, into which 
coal-gas has been brought has produced a considerable effect 
upon the price of oil and tallow, as well as of wax ; so that 



310 Five Black Arts. 

a comparative estimate of the expense of procuring the same 
extent of illumination from coal-gas and from these substances 
must appear less favorable to the former than would have 
been the case had the comparison been made when gas was 
first introduced. But by way of illustration, the approximative 
economy of the substances commonly employed for illumination 
may be contrasted as follows : — Supposing that 5 cubic feet 
of gas per hour give a light equal to that of 12 candles, then 
1000 cubic feet, if burnt at the rate of 5 feet per hour, would 
give a light equal to that of 12 candles for 200 hours, at the 
cost of 4s. 6d., which is about the average price of gas in 
London per 1000 feet at the present time (1855). Suppose 
the candles to cost 9d. per lb., then 2 lbs. of candles, 6 to 
the lb., would burn for 6| hours at the cost of Is. 6J., or 60 
lbs. would burn 200 hours, at the cost of 21. 5s. Assuming 
wax to be three times the price of the candles, the cost of 
wax candles for 200 hours would be 61. 15s. ; and taking 
sperm oil at 8s. per gallon, 4 gallons would give a light equal 
to that of 12 candles for 200 hours, at a cost of 11. 12s. 
So that, by comparing the cost of these various sources of 
light for equal periods of timOj we have — 

L. s. d. 

For wax candles, the cost of 6 15 

For tallow candles, " 2 5 

For sperm oil, " 112 

For gas, " 4 6 

The expense of gas, as compared with that of the other 
sources of light, will be — 

Gas 1-0 Candles 100 

Oil 7.1 Wax 300 

In the above comparison we have taken London gas as the 
standard, which is scarcely fair, seeing that this gas is inferior 
in illuminating power to that of most other towns. 

But the light obtained from coal-gas is not only procured 
at a smaller expense ; it is also more convenient for most 
purposes than the light yielded by other substances, In the 
ordinary mode of lighting by tallow and oil, the light derived 
from their combustion cannot be diminished in intensity with- 
out considerable disadvantage and trouble ; whereas in the 
case of gas, it may be reduced in an instant from the most 



Gas — Secondary Products. 311 

perfect splendor to the feeblest degree of illumination by the 
simple adjustment of the stop-cock. The advantages arising 
from this easy method of regulating the light of gas, when it 
is used in the chambers of the sick, and indeed in all apart- 
ments where a variable but uninterrupted supply of light 
must be kept up, can only be duly estimated by those who 
have experienced them. To every branch of manufacturing 
industry which requires a steady and powerful light, the 
benefits which have resulted from the introduction of coal-gas 
are not less important. In many operations the light may be 
conveyed by means of flexible pipes, connected together with 
ball-and-socket joints, so as to be almost in contact with the 
fabric it is intended to illuminate, without the slightest risk 
of injury ; and it may be kept in the same state for many 
hours in succession, or altered, as circumstances may render 
necessary. 

For lighting churches, theaters, and other public buildings, 
where a strong and uniform light is required, gas answers the 
purpose more effectually than any other mode of illumination ; 
partly from the facility of its application, and partly from the 
diversified and tasteful manner in which the jets of flame may 
be exhibited in various kinds of burners. 

As a street light, its superiority is universally admitted ; 
and from that application of gas it cannot be doubted that 
the metropolis, and other large towns, have derived great ad- 
ditional security against the perpetration of nocturnal crimes, 
as well as the means of carrying on the ordinary business of 
life, during the evening with nearly the same convenience as 
during the full light of day. 

Secondary Products. 

The chemistry of the gas manufacture has been for some 
years in a state of mutation, the effect of which has been 
to bring about important changes in the nature and amount 
of the secondary products. We may, however, refer to the 
methods of disposing of the usual secondary products, namely, 
the coke, the tar, and the ammoniacal liquor. A ton of New- 
castle coals of the average weight of 2240 lbs. yields — 



812 Five Black Arts. 

1 Chaldron of coke = 1494 lbs. 

12 Gallons of tar = 136 " 

10 Gallons of ammoniacal liquor = 100 " 

9000 to 10,000 Cubic feet of Gas = 291 " 

Loss = 220 " 

2249 lbs. 

It is found, on an average, that 1 cwt. of coals yields about 
2 bushels of coke. About one-fourth of the quantity of coke 
produced is used as fuel for heating the retorts, and the re- 
mainder is sold. The tar and ammoniacal liquor or gas-water 
separate in the tar cistern, the tar forming the lower stratum. 
This is used in the manufacture of patent fuel and of creasote, 
and as a rough paint for out-door work, 100 lbs. of tar yield 
by distillation about 26 lbs. of an oily liquid known as coal-oil. 
A light product first distils over, which is called coal-naptha ; 
the remaining pitch is used for paying the bottoms of ships, 
wooden piles, etc. The coal-naptha is used for dissolving 
caoutchouc, and for burning in the naptha-lamp. The ammo- 
niacal liquor is used in the manufacture of sal-ammoniac, 
carbonate of ammonia, and prussian-blue. The presence of 
cyanogen in the ammoniacal liquor has led to its employment 
in the manufacture of ferrocyanide of iron or prussian-blue. 
It is stated that a gallon of ammoniacal liquor, when satu- 
rated with sulphuric acid, contains enough of cyanogen and 
cyanates to form, with a salt of iron, 24 grains of prussian- 
blue. 

The secondary products of the Edinburgh gas-works are 
turned to account at the chemical works, situate at a distance 
of about two miles from them, the gas-works being on a lower 
level. They are, however, connected by a line of pipes, and 
the gas-liquor is lifted over the shoulder of the Calton Hill 
by means of a force-pump. The difference of level is then > 
sufficient to carry it to the chemical works. The liquor is 
left for the tar to subside, but the ammoniacal liquor, consist- 
ing of an impure solution of carbonate and hydrosulphuret 
of ammonia, still contains a portion of tar, which is got rid 
of by distillation. The larger portion of the distilled liquid 
is converted into sal-ammoniac, and a portion into sulphate 
of ammonia. In order to obtain the sal-ammoniac, the liquor 
is neutralized with hydrochloric acid, and is then pumped into 
large cauldrons and evaporated to the crystalizing point, when 



Gas — Secondary Products. 313 

it is drawn off into large vats, and on cooling deposits small 
feathery crystals ; these are transferred to a stone chest, and 
are dried by the heat of a furnace below. The salt then 
resembles brown sugar ; it is mixed with charcoal powder for 
the purpose of reducing any oxide of iron which may be 
present, and thus to get rid of the brown tint in the process 
of sublimation. The subliming vessels resemble a man's hat, 
and are arranged in the furnace with the crown downward ; 
they are about three feet in depth, and two and a half in di- 
ameter, and they contain sufficient for a week's charge. 
Each pot is covered with a leaden cupola, luted on with clay, 
and the salt is at first allowed to sublime away through a hole 
in the center. This occasions some loss, but it appears to be 
a necessary precaution to prevent porosity in the sublimate. 
The central hole is then plugged with clay, and the sublima- 
tion is continued for a week. In this way hemispherical cakes 
of sal-ammoniac are produced ; they are rasped on the sur- 
face to remove crust or coloring matter, and are broken into 
wedges, which are packed in barrels for exportation. 

In preparing sulphate of ammonia the distilled ammoniacal 
liquor is saturated with sulphuric acid, and concentrated until 
small crystals are formed, which are removed by perforated 
ladles, dried, and packed in barrels lined with paper. 

The tar, which contains a considerable portion of water, 
is transferred to a still, where crude naptha and vapor of 
water distil over. They separate in consequence of their 
different densities, and the naptha is digested with sulphuric 
acid in a leaden trough. This separates ammonia and other 
substances ; the acid is removed by means of quick-lime, the 
naptha is washed with water, distilled, and is ready for the 
market. The remaining tar is raised to a higher temperature, 
and a liquid less volatile than naptha is produced ; it is term- 
ed pitch-oil, and is used for impregnating wood, etc. The 
pitch in the still is then run out, when it settles into a soft 
solid, for which at Edinburgh no market has yet been found, 
but it may probably be turned to account as a cheap fuel. 

Scarcely any market is found for the tar, which was for- 
merly largely consumed at Continental seaports. The in- 
crease of gas-works on the Continent, and the absence of duty 
on foreign tar as distinguished from British tar, has greatly 
retarded the sale of the latter abroad. 



314 Five Black Arts. 

Since the introduction of the Boghead cannel coal, a new 
secondary product has been obtained in the form of paraffine. 
It is separated at the Westminster gas-works as paraffine-oil, 
and is used for lubricating the machinery. 



IBON. 



HISTORY OF ITS MANUFACTURE, 



AN ACCOUNT OF ITS PROPERTIES AND USES. 



lEON. 



Iron, on account of its abundance, working qualities, and 
tenacity, is probably the most useful and valuable of metals. 
According to Dr. Ure, " it is capable of being cast into 
moulds of any form, of being drawn into wire of any desired 
length or fineness, of being extended into plates or sheets, of 
being bent in every direction, of being sharpened, or hard- 
ened, or softened at pleasure. Iron accommodates itself to 
all our wants and desires, and even to our caprices ; it is 
equally serviceable to the arts, the sciences, to agriculture, 
and war ; the same ore furnishes the sword, the plowshare, 
the scythe, the pruning-hook, the needle, the graver, the 
spring of a watch or of a carriage, the chisel, the chain, the 
anchor, the compass, the cannon, and the bomb. It is a 
medicine of much virtue, and the only metal friendly to the 
human frame." In its primitive position it is commingled 
with the earth's strata in bountiful profusion ; it is found in 
various combinations and conditions in every formation, and 
it is a constituent element of both animals and vegetables. 

HISTORY OF THE IRON MANUFACTURE. 

Malleable iron appears to have been known from a remote 
antiquity. Its obvious utility and great superiority over the 
softer metals, then commonly used, combined with the expense 
of its reduction, caused it to be highly prized, though the ex- 
treme difficulty of working it by the rude methods then em- 
ployed greatly restricted its application.* There are notices 
in Homer and Hesiod of the arts of reducing and forging 
iron, but cast-iron was then unknown, an imperfectly mallea- 
ble iron being produced at once from the ores in the furnace. 

* This is shown by the epithet much-wrought, applied to it by Homer — 
lUad, vi. 48. 



318 Five Black Arts. 

It is probable that the Greeks obtained most of their iron 
through the Phoenicians from the shores of the Black Sea, 
and from Laconia. 

It would be interesting to trace the gradual advances 
which have been made in the reduction of iron from its dis- 
covery to the present time ; to inquire into the circumstances 
which led to the successive changes in the processes, and into 
the principle on which those changes were founded ; to ex- 
amine into differences in the products which from time to 
time ensued, and to notice the influence of these conditions 
on the extent and progress of the manufacture. Our knowl- 
edge of these changes, however, is scanty and imperfect, and 
we can only conjecture what was probably its early progress. 

The furnaces which were first employed for smelting iron 
were probably similar to those now called air-Moomeries . 
They were probably simple conical structures, with small 
openings below for the admission of air, and a large one above 
for the escape of the products of combustion, and would be 
erected on high grounds in order that the wind might assist 
combustion. The fire being kindled, successive layers of ore 
and charcoal would be placed in it, and the heat regulated 
by opening or closing the apertures below. 

The process of reduction would consist of the de-oxidation 
of the ore and the cementation of the metal by long-continued 
heat. The temperature would never rise sufficiently high to 
fuse the ore, and the product would therefore be an imper- 
fectly malleable iron, mixed with scoriae and unreduced oxide. 
It would then be brought under the hammer, and fashioned 
into a rude bloom, during which process it would be freed 
from the greater portion of the earthy impurities. 

By such a process as this the Romans probably worked the 
iron ores of our own island ; scorise, the refuse of ancient 
bloomeries, occur in various localities, in some cases identified 
with that people by the coincident remains of altars dedica- 
ted to the god who presided over iron. Mungo Park saw a 
rude furnace of this kind used by the Africans, and, indeed, 
with some modifications, it is still retained in Spain, and along 
the coast of the Mediterranean, where rich specular ores are 
worked. 

The advantages of an artificial blast would soon become 
manifest, and a pair of bellows or a cylinder and piston would 



Iron — Manufacture. 319 

soon be applied to the simple construction mentioned above. 
Homer represents Hephaestus as throwing the materials from 
•which the shield of Achilles was to be forged into a furnace 
urged by 20 pairs of bellows {9v(fut'). The inhabitants of 
Madagascar smelt iron in much the same way, their blowing 
apparatus, however, consisting of hollow trunks of trees, 
with loosely fitting pistons. 

The furnace corresponds to the blast-hloomerj , and has by 
successive improvements developed into the blast furnace, 
now almost universally used, and into the Catalan forge, still 
employed in some districts. The application of the blast 
would offer considerable advantages ; it would obviate the 
necessity of an elevated site, place the temperature more 
immediately under the direction of the smelter, and render 
the whole process more regular and certain. The method of 
reduction remained the same as before, but the product would 
differ considerably, for whenever the blast was sufficiently 
powerful, the iron would be fused, a partial carburation 
would take place, and the resulting metal would be a species 
of steel, utterly useless to the workmen of those days ; hence, 
it seems necessary to infer, that a rude process of refining 
was invented, the metal being again heated with charcoal, and 
the blast directed over its surface, the carbon would be burnt 
out, and the iron become tough and malleable. The processes 
might perhaps form two successive stages of one operation, as 
at present practiced with the Catalan forge. 

The increasing demand for iron, and the progress of inter- 
nal communication, would lead the smelter to increase the 
size and height of his bloomery, and this probably would 
lead to a very unexpected result. The greater length through 
which the ore had to descend would prolong its contact with 
the charcoal, and a higher state of carburation would ensue, 
the product being cast-iron — a compound till then perhaps 
unknown. 

From the time that cast-iron became the product of the 
smelting furnace, the refining would be made a separate pro- 
cess, requiring a separate furnace and machinery. It would 
soon be found also that, as the furnace increased in height, the 
pressure of the superincumbent mass would render the mate- 
rials so dense as to retard the ascent of the blast, and thus 
cause it to become soft and inefficient ; hence the internal 



320 Five Black Arts. 

buttresses called hoshes were first introduced to support the 
weight of the charge, relieving the central parts from the 
pressure, and permitting the free ascent of the blast. Whilst 
the good quality of the iron and the regularity of the process 
were thus insured, increase of quantity was the result of im- 
provements in the blowing apparatus, which was now enlarged 
and worked by water-power. With these modifications, the 
furnace was the same essentially as the blast-furnace now 
employed, though not so large ; indeed, until the introduction 
of coke at a much later period, the blast-furnace seldom ex- 
ceeded 15 feet in height by 6 at the widest diameter. The 
more perfect operation of the blast-furnace allowed the re- 
duction of the heaps of scoriaa which had been gradually 
accumulating during the period that the blast bloomeries had 
been in operation, and which contained 30 to 40 per cent, of 
iron. A new species of property was thus created, extensive 
proprietorships of Danish and Roman cinders were formed ; 
large deposits of scoriae which for ages had lain concealed 
beneath forests of decayed oak, were dug up, and in Dean 
Forest it is computed that 20 furnaces, for a period of up- 
ward of 300 years, were supplied chiefly with the bloomery 
cinders as a substitute for iron ore. 

At what period the complete transformation of the blast- 
bloomery into the blast furnace was effected, it is impossible 
to say. It was probably in the early part of the 16th century, 
as we find that in the 17th the art of casting had arrived at 
a considerable degree of perfection, and in the reign of 
Elizabeth there was a considerable export trade of cast-iron 
ordnance to the Continent. In the forest of Dean are the 
remains of two blast furnaces, which formerly belonged to 
the kings of England, but they have been out of blast since 
the commencement of the struggle between Charles I. and 
his Parliament. Calculating from the quantity of scorige 
accumulated in their immediate neighborhood, which appear to 
have lain undisturbed for the last two centuries, Mr. Mushet 
has attempted to deduce the period of their erection, which 
he conceives to have been about the year 1550, in the time 
of Edward VI. 

Up to this period wood charcoal was the only material 
employed in smelting operations, but the wants of a constantly 
increasing population, not less than the great consumption of 



Ikon — History. 321 

the blast furnaces themselves, created a scarcity of this essen- 
tial material, and gave a check to the manufacture. To such 
an extent had the wood been destroyed, that the cutting down 
of timber for the use of the iron-works was prohibited by 
special enactments ; and the forests of Sussex alone appear 
to have been exempt from the general decree of conservation. 
The number of furnaces in blast decreased three-fourths, and 
the annual production, which but a short time before is said 
to have been 180,000 tons, was in 1740 reduced to only 
17,350 tons. 

James I. granted patents to ironmasters in various parts of 
the kingdom for using pit-coal in the manufacture of iron. 
The obstacles to its introduction, however, were numerous, 
and not easily overcome. The comparatively incombustible 
nature of coke, and its feebler chemical aflBnities, rendered a 
more powerful blast and a longer subjection to the heat indis- 
pensable to its successful adoption. Ignorance of the causes 
of failure operated long and seriously, but all difficulties Avere 
at length surmounted. An enlargement of the height of the 
furnace prolonged the contact of the ore and coke, and at last 
the employment of the steam-engine and improved blowing 
apparatus rendered the blast much more powerful and regular, 
and gave that impetus to the manufacture which has caused 
Great Britain to take the first rank in this branch of in- 
dustry. 

The first great improvement on the blowing apparatus was 
the substitution of large cylinders, with closely fitting pistons, 
for the bellows. The earliest of any magnitude were prob- 
ably those erected by Smeaton at the Carron Iron- Works, in 
1760. 

In 1783-4, Mr. Cort of Gosport introduced the processes 
of puddling and rolling, two of the most important inventions 
connected with the production of iron since the employment 
of the blast furnace. 

About this time the steam-engine of James Watt came 
into use, and along with it commenced a new era in the 
history of the iron trade and every other branch of industry. 
Its immense power, economy, and convenience of application, 
brought it at once into general employment. It was soon 
applied to pumping, blowing, and rolling ; it enabled the mines 
to be sunk to a greater depth ; refractory ores to be reduced 
21 



322 Five Black Arts. 

with facility, and the processes of rolling, forging, etc., to Bo 
effected with a rapidity previously unknown. 

Of late years, Scotland has made considerable progress in 
the iron manufacture. The introduction of railway commu- 
nication, and the invention of the hot-blast, have given a 
stimulus to the trade which has raised Glasgow into impor- 
tance as an iron district, and few towns possess greater fa- 
cilities for the sale of their produce, than this central depot 
of the mineral treasures of the country by which it is sur- 
rounded. 

The hot-blast process, for which a patent was taken out by 
Mr. Neilson in 1824, has effected an entire revolution in the 
iron industry of Great Britain, and forms the last era in the 
history of this material. This simple but effective invention 
has given such facilities for the reduction of refractory ores, 
that between three and four times the quantity of iron can 
be produced weekly, with an expenditure of little more than 
one-third the fuel ; and, moreover, the coal does not require 
to be coked, or the ores to be calcined. 

In conclusion, we may add that there appear to have been 
five distinct epochs in the history of the iron trade. 

The first dating from the employment of an artificial blast 
to accelerate combustion. 

The second marked by the employment of coke for reduc- 
tion, about the year 1760. 

The third dating from the introduction of the steam-engine, 
and on account of the facilities with which that invention has 
given for raising the ores, pumping the mines, supplying the 
furnace with a copious and regular blast, and moving the 
powerful forge and rolling machinery, we may safely attrib- 
ute this era to the genius of James Watt. 

The fourth epoch is indicated by the introduction of the 
system of puddling and rolling, very soon after the employ- 
ment of the steam-engine. 

The fifth, and last — though not the least important epoch 
in the history of this manufacture — is marked by the appli- 
cation of the hot-blast — an invention which has increased the 
production of iron fourfold, and has enabled the ironmaster 
to smelt otherwise useless and unreducible ores ; it has abol- 
ished the processes of coking and roasting, and has given 
facilities for a large and rapid production, far beyond the 



Iron— Ores. 323 

most sanguine anticipations of its inventor. Manufacturers 
taking advantage of so powerful an agent, have not hesitated 
to reduce improper materials, such as cinder-heaps and im- 
pure ores, and by unduly hastening the process, and attend- 
ing to quantity more than to quality, have produced an infe- 
rior description of iron, that has brought the invention into 
unmerited obloquy. 

THE ORES. 

The ores of iron are found in profuse abundance in every 
latitude, imbedded in or stratified with every formation. They 
occur both crystallized, massive, and arenaceous ; lying deep 
on strata of vast extent, filling veins and faults in other rocks, 
and scattered over the surface of the ground. Sometimes, 
but rarely, found native ; usually as oxides, sulphurets, or 
carbonates, more or less mingled with other substances Of 
these ores there are perhaps twenty varieties, miany of which 
are, however, rare ; others are combined with substances which 
unfit them for the manufacture of iron, so that the remainder 
may be classed under the following general heads ; their 
composition, however, varies greatly : 

1. The magnetic oxides, in which the iron occurs, as 
Fcg O4 or Foa O3-I- Fe 0. This is the purest ore which is 
worked ; the best Swedish metal is manufactured from it. It 
is found in primitive rocks, and is widely difiused over the 
globe. 

2. Specular iron ore, peroxide of iron, Foa O3. This is 
rich and valuable ore, and has been worked from a remote 
antiquity in Elba and Spain. It is found chiefly in primary 
and transition rocks. 

8. Red and brown haematites, hydrated peroxide of iron. 
These ores occur in botyroidal radiating masses, in Cumber- 
land, Ireland, America, and other places. 

4. Carbonate of iron. This ore occurs mixed with large 
quantities of argillaceous, carbonaceous, and silicious sub- 
stances, forming the large deposits of clay-ironstone and 
blackbands, from which most of the iron of this country is 
obtained. These strata are generally found in close proxim- 
ity to the coal measures. 

All the above ores are more or less mixed with silica, alu- 



B24 



Five Black Arts. 



mina, oxide of manganese, etc., and it may not be uninter- 
esting to glance at their geographical distribution in Europe 
and America. 

This country possesses peculiar and remarkable advanta- 
ges for the manufacture of iron. The ores are found in ex- 
haustless abundance, usually interstratified with the coal for 
their reduction, and in close proximity to the mountain lime- 
stone, which is used as a flux. In few countries do these 
three essential materials occur in such abundance, or so near 
together as to give the necessary facilities for a large and 
profitable production. 

The ores principally employed are the clay-ironstones and 
carbonates of blackbands, which are found interstratified with 
the coal fields of Ayrshire, Lanarkshire, Shropshire, South 
Wales, and other parts, and these vary in richness in different 
localities, according to position and the amount of silica clay 
and other foreign matter with which they are associated. The 
chemical composition of three varieties of the ore used in 
Lanarkshire is given by Dr. Colquhoun, as follows : 





No. 1. 


No. 2. 


No. 3. 




5303 
35-17 
1-40 
0-63 
3-33 
1-77 
0-23 
3-03 
0-00 
0-00 
1-41 


47-33 
33-10 
6-63 
4-30 
2-00 
2-20 
0-33 
1-70 
0-22 
0-13 
2-26 


35-22 




32-53 


Silica 


9-56 




5-34 


Lime 


8-62 


Magnesia 


5-19 




1-16 


Bituminous matter 


2-13 




0-62 




0-00 


Moisture and loss 


0-00 








100-00 


100-00 


100-37 



The carbonic acid in the above ores may be partly com- 
bined with the lime as carbonate of lime, as well as with the 
protoxide of iron. 

M. Berthier gives, according to Dr. Ure, the following 
analyses of the English and Welsh ironstones of the coal 
measures : 



Iron — Ores. 



325 





Rich welsh 
Ore. 


^0°' Welsh 
Ore. 


DudleyRich 
Ore or 
Gubbia. 


Loss by ignition 


30-00 
8-40 

60-00 
0-00 


27-0) 
22-03 

42 oC 
6 00 


31-00 
7-66 

58-33 
2-66 


Insoluble residuum 


Peroxide of iron 


Lime 






98-40 


97-69 


99-65 



Calculating the amount of carbonate of iron and metallic 
iron indicated by the above analyses, we have : 




Carbonate of iron 
Metallic iron 



The richness of the above ironstones would be about 33 
per cent, of iron. In the^ process of roasting, 28 per cent, 
of the ore is dissipated. 

Mr. Mitchell gives also the following assays of clay-iron- 
stone and blackband ore, as under : 





Clay iron- 
stone, Lei- 
trim,Ireland. 


Blackband 

Carbonate 

Ore. 




51-653 

3-742 

-976 

1-849 

-284 

•410 

•274 

-372 

•214 

-284 

31-142 

6-640 

I 2-160 


20-924 


Peroxide of iron 


-741 




1-742 




14-974 




-987 


Lime 


-881 


Potash , 


trace. 


Soda ....... 


trace. 


Sulphur 


-098 


Phosphoric acid 


-114 




14-000 


Silica 


26-179 


Carbonaceous matter 


16-940 




2-420 








100-000 


100-000 



In North Lancashire and Cumberland, the red haematite ores 



326 Five Black Arts. 

are now extensively worked, and great quantities are yearly 
shipped from Whitehaven, Ulverstone, etc., to Staffordshire, 
South Wales, and Scotland, for mixing with the poorer ar- 
gillaceous and blackband ores. In Cumberland and North 
Lancashire, no less than 546,998 tons were raised in 1854 
for this purpose, and the greater portion was exported from 
those districts. 

In addition to these exports, about 25 to 30,000 tons are 
smelted by the hot blast at Cleator, in the neighborhood of 
Whitehaven. It produces a strong and ductile iron, con- 
sidered highly valuable for mixing with the weaker irons. 
These ores have been carefully analyzed, and contain : 

Peroxide of iron , 90-3 

Silica 5-0 

Alumina 3'0 

Lime trace. 

Magnesia trace. 

Water 6-0 

104-3 



Or about 62 per cent, of metallic iron. 

In Ireland there are vast deposits of iron ore of great 
richness, though as yet but little worked. Some of these, 
such as the ores worked at the Arigua mines, and the Kidney 
ores of Balcarry Bay, yield as much as 70 per cent, of iron. 
If these mines were worked more extensively, and if peat 
fuel were used in the smelting operations, the iron would 
probably be of the very best quality, and might rival the 
famed Swedish charcoal metal. Of this there is now every 
reason to hope, as the estabUshment of railway communica- 
tion, with almost every part of Ireland, will open out the 
immense peat bogs of that country, and facilitate the intro- 
duction of vegetable fuel for the reduction of the ores, and 
create a large and important addition to other branches of 
Irish industry. In a communication to the writer from Mr. 
M'All, dated Scrabby, he states — " I have sent you samples 
of two kinds of iron ore, one is the red, the other the purple 
haematite. There are strata which are inexhaustible, and the 
ore can be raised and delivered at the furnace for less than 
a shilling a ton ; the peat or vegetable carbon is equally cheap 
and abundant. Limestone of the purest quality is also close 



Iron— Ores. 327 

at hand, and can be delivered at the furnace at ninepence 
per ton. On account of the purity of these materials, iron 
of the greatest strength and ductility can be made, which, 
from its non-liability to corrode, would be admirably adapted 
for naval and marine purposes." Ireland is, therefore, ac- 
cording to Mr. M'All and others, in a condition to supply 
large quantities of excellent iron. 

France possesses an abundant supply of iron ore, but on 
account of the scarcity of coal, the manufacture has been 
greatly restricted in extent. The introduction of railway 
communication is, however, rapidly removing the dijBficulty, 
and the operations of smelting are greatly on the increase. 
The railroad has enabled the French ironmaster to substitute 
coal for charcoal in the reduction of the iron ores, and in 
consequence an immense increase has taken place in the pro- 
duction of pig and manufactured iron. The ores are found 
in beds or strata in the Jura range ; accumulated in kidney- 
shaped concretions in the fissures of the limestone ; or dis- 
persed over the surface of the ground, and but slightly cover- 
ed with sand or clay. 

They are found in the departments of the Yonne, the 
Meuse, and the Moselle, and indeed may be traced from the 
Pas de Calais on the north to the Jura on the south, in- 
dicating throughout an abundant and ample supply. 

The present increased production of iron in France is 
chiefly due to the introduction of coal in smelting, but it may 
also be traced in some measure to the encouragement given 
by the Government to that branch of industry, and to the 
enterprise of such men as M. de Gallois and M. Dufienoy, 
who have exerted themselves to extend its manufacture in that 
country. M. de Gallois resided in England for several years, 
immediately subsequent to the peace of 1815, and having ob- 
tained admission into the different iron-works here, he returned 
to France and estabhshed the works at St. Etienne, now 
probably the largest and most extensive in that country.* 

* The universal exhibition of last year (1855) fully justifies the remarks 
in reference to the great increase of the iron trade of France. Any person 
in the least conversant with the imperfect machinery and processes of the 
iron manufacture as it existed in France some years since, could not have 
been otherwise than struck with the improved character of those exemplified 
in the Paris Exhibition. In no country (probably not excepting even this) 
has so ftreat progress been made in so short a time, in advancing from a 
state of comparative rudeness to one of considerable perfection, as in France. 



828 Five Black Arts. 

The production of crude pig-iron in France is now little short 
of 1,000,000 tons annually, but the demand for railways, 
rolling-stock, bridges, iron ships, girders, and other construc- 
tions is so great that large quantities of iron are still annu- 
ally imported into this country. 

Valuable deposits of the blackband and clay carbonate 
ores are found interstratified with the great coal-field of 
Ruhr ; and the bog-iron and haematite ores are found in con- 
siderable profusion in Rhenish Prussia and other parts. In 
Upper Silesia, on the Vistula and the Oder, large deposits of 
coal and iron are found in juxtaposition, and are worked to 
a considerable extent. 

The consumption of iron is not so great as in France, 
though it is increasing rapidly, as may be seen from returns 
recently given by the British Charge d' Affaires at Berlin. 
These returns show that the amount of iron ore raised in Prus- 
sia has increased from 1,495,516 tons in 1853, to 2,144,509 
tons in 1854 ; this has taken place in nearly all the producing 
districts, but chiefly on the Rhine, where the demand has in- 
creased from 719,684 to 1,068,656 tons ; in Westphaha, from 
146,320 to 330,014 tons ; in Silesia, from 563,739 to 650,369 
tons ; in Lower Saxony and Thuringia, from 51,963 to 70,- 
676 tons ; in Prussian Brandenburgh, from 8084 to 12,731 
tons ; and in the Upper ZoUverein, from 6736 to 13,063 tons. 

In Austria, all tne iron is smelted with charcoal or car- 
bonized peat, and is in consequence of the finest quality ; it 
may be applied to every description of manufacture, from the 
most ductile wire to the hardest steel. The production is, 
however, small. The ores are found in Hungary, Styria, 
Moravia, and Upper Silesia. 

In Belgium, both coal and iron are found in equal abun- 
dance, and are worked at Charleroi, Liege, and at other places. 
The ores which are chiefly haematite, are derived from the 
limestone at the base of the coal measures. 

The superiority of the Swedish iron has long been ac- 
knowledged, and till recently it has been unrivaled. This 
arises not only from the purity of the ore — the magnetic 
oxide of iron — but in consequence of its being smelted with 
charcoal only. The quantity is however restricted, as the 
ironmasters are allowed by law only a certain number of trees 
per annum, in order that the forests may not be totally 



Iron— Ores. 329 

destroyed. Coal does not exist in either Sweden or Nor- 
way. 

In 1844 some experimental researches were undertaken 
by Mr. Fairbairn of Manchester, at the request of the Sub- 
lime Porte, in regard to the properties of iron made from 
the ores of Samakoff in Turkey. The ores were strongly 
magnetic, and contained, according to Dumas and others, 62 
to 64 per cent, of iron. They consist of: 

One atom iron 28 -\- one atom oxygen 8 := 36 
Two atoms iron 56 -f- three atoms oxygen 24 ^ 80 

Iron 84 Oxygen 32 116 

Some of these ores have been smelted with charcoal, and 
some very fine specimens of iron and steel produced. The 
manufacture is, however, in a languid state in Turkey, and 
although smelting furnaces, blowing apparatus, forges, rolling 
mills, etc., were prepared and sent out from this country, they 
are to a great extent useless among a people who have deeply 
rooted prejudices and habitual inactivity to overcome, and 
every thing to learn in all those habits of industry which indi- 
cate the rising prosperity of an energetic and an active people. 

Both the magnetic, haematite, and clay-ironstones abound 
in the United States. The magnetic ores worked in New 
England, New York, and New Jersey ; the haematite in 
Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, and other localities ; 
but the greater part of the manufacture must eventually es- 
tablish itself in the valley of the Mississippi west of the 
Alleghany range, where vast deposits of coal and iron exist, 
though at present but imperectly known or developed.* The 
ores in most of these districts are smelted with a mixture of 
charcoal and anthracite, and the usual limestone flux, and pro- 
duce a very excellent quality of iron. 

In Nova Scotia some of the richest ores yet discovered occur 
in exhaustless abundance. The iron manufactured from them 
is of the very best quality, and is equal to the finest Swedish 
metal. The specular ore of the Acadian mines. Nova Scotia, 
is said by Dr. Ure to be a nearly pure peroxide of iron, con- 
taining 99 per cent, of the peroxide, and about 70 per cent, 
of iron. When smelted, 100 parts yield 75 of iron, the in- 
crease in weight being due to combined carbon. The red 

* Especially in Ohio and in Missouri. 



830 Five Black Arts. 

ore Dr. Ure states to be analogous to the kidney ore of Cum- 
berland, and to contain : 

(1) (2) 

Peroxide of iron 85-8 84.4 

Silica 8.2 8-0 

Water 6-0 7-6 

100-0 100.0 

The Acadian ores are situated in the neighborhood of large 
tracts of forests, capable of supplying almost any quantity of 
charcoal for the manufacture of the superior qualities of iron 
and steel. Several specimens of iron from these mines have 
been submitted to direct experiment, and the results prove its 
high powers to resist strain, ductility, and adaptation to all 
those processes by which the finest description of wire and 
steel are manufactured. 

The difficulties which the Government have had to encoun- 
ter, during the last two years, in obtaining a sufficiently 
strong metal for artillery, are likely to be removed by the use 
of the Acadian pig-iron. Large quantities have been pur- 
chased by the War Office, and experiments are now in prog- 
ress, under the direction of Lieutenant-Colonel Wilmot, In- 
spector of Artillery, and of Mr. Fairbairn, which seem cal- 
culated to establish the superiority of this metal for casting 
every description of heavy ordnance. 

There are also some very rich ores at the Nictau mines, 
as the following analyses by Dr. Jackson show. They con- 
tain impressions of Silurian tentaculities, spirifers, etc. : 



Iron — Fuel. 



331 





Brown Ore somewliat 
magnetic. 


Red Iron Ore. 


Peroxide of iron . . . ... 


70-20 

14-40 

5-60 

2-80 

6-80 

•40 

•00 


64-40 


Silica 

Carbonate of Lime 


19.20 
5-40 




3-20 


Alumina .... 


1-20 


Oxide of Mano-anese 


4-40 


Water 


2-40 






* Gain from oxygen. 

t Over-run, probably carbonic acid from 


100-20 
•20* 


100-20 
•20t 


carbonate of lime. 


10000 


100-00 



As our limits are circumscribed, it will not be necessary to 
extend this section further ; suffice it therefore to observe, that 
in all countries nature has, with a beneficent purpose, interlaid 
and interstratified the whole surface of the globe with this 
useful and indispensable material, and it would ill bespeak that 
high intelligence with which man is endowed if he did not 
avail himself of, and turn to good account, the immense stores 
of mineral treasures which are so profusely laid at his feet. 



THE FUEL. 

The inquiry into the properties and composition of the 
ores of iron, and the processes employed for their reduc- 
tion and subsequent conversion into bars and plates, would be 
incomplete unless accompanied by a descriptive analyses of 
the fuel by which they are fused. Indeed the results of the 
operations of smelting, puddling, etc., are so intimately de- 
pendent on the quality of the fuel employed, as to render a 
knowledge of its constituents essential to the manufacture of 
good iron. 

Charcoal was at first universally employed in the manufac- 
ture of iron, and on account of its purity compared with 
other kinds of fuel, and its strong chemical affinities and con- 
sequent high combustibility, it is of very superior value where 



332 



Five Black Arts. 



it can be obtained in large quantities at a moderate cost. 
This, however, is rarely the case, and hence its use is restric- 
ted within very narrow limits in most countries. Charcoal is 
the result of several processes, in each of which the object 
is to increase the amount of fuel in a given bulk. The wood 
being cut into convenient lengths, and piled closely together, 
in a large heap, the interstices being filled with the smaller 
branches, and the whole being covered with wet charcoal pow- 
der, is then set on fire. Care is taken that only sufficient air 
is admitted to consume the gaseous products of the wood, so as 
to maintain the high temperature without needlessly consum- 
ing the carbon. After the whole of the gaseous products 
have been separated, and the carbon and salts only are 
left, the access of air is prevented, and the heap allowed to 
cool. 

Another and better process is to throw the wood into a 
large close oven or furnace, heated either by the combustion 
within it, or by a separate fire conducted in flues around it. 
By this process, not only is the yield greater and of better 
quality, from the slower progress of the operation, but the 
products of the distillation may be preserved and employed 
for a great variety of purposes. The following results of 
some experiments by Karsten, show the difference in yield of 
very rapid and very slow processes : 



Wood. 


Charcoal produced by quick 
carbonizatioa 


Charcoal produced by slow 
carbonization.j, .^^^^ 




16-54 
15-91 
14-25 
14-05 
16-22 
15-35 


25-60 


0)d " 


25-71 


Young Deal 


25-25 


Old " 


25-00 


Young Fir 


27-72 


Old " 


24-75 






Mean 


15-38 


25-67 







These, on the average, give for the quick process 15-3, 
and for the slow 25*6, being in the ratio of 1 : 1-67, or 0.67 
in favor of the quick process. 

Peat. — This material seems likely to come into use for 



Iron— Fuel. 333 

smelting iron in countries such as Ireland, where neither coal 
nor wood are found in abundance. It is purer and less ob- 
jectionable than coal, and if properly dried, compressed, and 
carbonized, would prove a very valuable fuel for the reduc- 
tion of such ores as we have already described in the section 
on the iron ores of Ireland. It is carbonized in the same 
way as the charring of wood. 

Coke. — Before the introduction of the hot-blast, this mate- 
rial was used to a very great extent in the manufacture of 
iron ; it is prepared from coal in the same way that charcoal 
is prepared from wood, the operation being called the coking 
or desulphurizing process. The heaps do not require so care- 
ful a regulation of the admission of air as those of charcoal, 
on account of the comparatively incombustible character of 
the coke. Sometimes the heaps are made large, with per- 
forated brick chimneys, to increase the draught through the 
mounds ; at other times they are formed into smaller heaps, 
and the conversion takes place without the intervention of 
flues. The more usual and economical plan is, however, the 
employment of close ovens, by which process a great saving 
is effected, the yield being from 80 to 50 per cent, in the one 
case, and from 50 to 75 in the other, according to the nature 
and quality of the coal. 

Coal. — The hot-blast has enabled the ironmasters to use 
raw coal in the blast furnaces, the great heat of the ascending 
current of the products of combustion coking it as it falls 
in the furnace. The sulphur, however, and other deleterious 
ingredients, do not appear to be so completely got rid of as 
when the coal is used in the shape of coke ; and it appears 
probable that even with the hot blast, the separate process of 
coking might be advantageously used, on account of the 
greater purity of the iron produced. 

The following tables, selected from various sources, give 
the composition of the different kinds of fuel, all of which are 
applicable to the reduction and fusion of the iron ores : 



334 



Five Black Arts. 



Locality. 



Authority. 



Splint Coal 



Cherry Coal . 



Caking Coal . 



Newcastle, Wylam 
Glasgow. 



Lancashire, Wigan 

Edinburgh. 
Parrot coal. 

Newcastle, Jarrow. 

Glasgow. 

Newcastle, Gares- 

field. 
Durham, South 

Hetton. 



1290 
1.266 



1.2V2 
1.228 
1.319 



1.263 
1.266 

1.286 

1.280 

1.274 
1.269 



75.00 
70 



64.72 
72.22 
?3.753 



74.46 
84.846 

81.208 

87. 

83.274 

75 28 



6.25 
4.80 
6.180 

6.491 
21.56 

5^660 

5.405 

12.40 
5.048 

5.452 

5.239 

5.171 
4.18 



18.75 
24.80 
5.085 

10.457 

13.72 



12.432 

13.15 

8.43( 

11.923 
5.416 



Thomson. 
Ure. 



(.54 



13, 
1.128 

2 545 
14.566 

1.676 
1.421 

1.; 

1.519 
4.670 



Ure. 
Richardson. 



J- Richardson. 



Thomson. 



South Wales, 
Pennsylvania, 



1 
1.270 



92.56 
90 58 
94,05 
90.15 
94.89 



2i 
2.< 

3; 

2.430 
2.550 
0.920 



2.530 

4.100 

2.570 

2.45" 

2. 

2.150 



1.720 
4.670 



Eegnault. 
Jacquelin. 
Overman. 
Regnault. 
> Overman. 



Worcester. 



Vulcaire, 

Lnng, 

Camp de Feu, 

Cappage, 

Kilbeggan, 

Kilbakan, 



57.03 

58.09 

57 

51 

61.04 

51.13 



5 

0.930 

6.110 

6.85 



31.760 
31.370 
80.770 
39.555 
30.46 
34.48 



Regnault. 
Dr. Kane. 



According to Knapp, peat contains from 1 to 33 per cent. 
its weight of ash. In coal we have the following from Mr. 
Mushet's analyses : 





Specific 
gravity 


Carbon. 


Ashes. 


Volatile 
matter. 


Welsh furnace coal 


1-377 
1-393 
1-409 
1-264 
1-278 


88-068 
89-709 
82-175 
52-882 
48-362 


3.432 
2.300 
6-725 
4-288 
4-638 


8-300 




8-000 


" slaty " 


9-100 


Derbyshire furnace coal 

" cannel " 


42-830 
47-000 



Iron — Fuel. 



335 



And again the analyses, from Overman, of the ash of coal, 
may be quoted, as showing the constituents contained in the 
ashes derived from combustion : 





80-3 
3-8 

14-2 
1-7 
0-0 


3- 6 




2-5 


Silex 


85-7 




0-0 




8-2 








100-0 


100-0 



The following table of the heating power of various kind s 
of fuel, from Knapp's Chemical Technology, is not without 
interest ; in practice, however, only a portion of the absolute 
heating power is made available : 



Authority. 



jbs. of water 

heated from 

0^ to 100° 

centig. by lib. 

ot fuel. 



Charcoal- 
Average 

Peat from Allen in Ireland- 
Upper 

Lower 

Pressed 

Peat charcoal — 

Essone 

Framont and Champ de Feu 
Coke— 

St. Etienne 

Besseges 

Rive de Gier 

Brown coal — 

Mean of 7 varieties 

Cannel coal, Wigan 

Cherry, Derbyshire 

Cannel, Glasgow 

" Lancashire 

Durham 

Gas coke, Paris — 
Anthracite 

Pennsylvania 

Mean of 5 varieties 



Berthier. 
Griffith. 

Berthier. 
Berthier. 
Berthier. 
Berthier. 

Berthier. 



62-7 
56-6 
28-0 

50-7 
58-9 

65-6 
64-3 
58-9 

50-3 
64-1 
61-6 
56-4 
53-2 
71-6 
50-3 

69-1 
67-4 



336 Five Black Arts. 

In concluding the observations on fuel, we may notice that 
tlie various kinds of coal are classed by mineralogists as the 
bituminous, and stone or anthracite coal. The first class is 
chiefly employed for the purpose of smelting, though, since 
the introduction of the hot-blast, anthracite is coming largely 
into use both in this country and America. Mr. Crane of 
South Wales was the first who attempted the reduction of iron 
ores by anthracite, and Mr. Budd, at his works at Ystalyfera, 
followed successfully in the same path. To these two gentle- 
men the public are indebted for having surmounted the ob- 
stacles to the employment of this fuel for smelting iron. 

THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON. 

The processes for the manufacture of iron, as we have 
already pointed out, are of two distinct kinds, those of cemen- 
tation and those of smelting ; the product of the former is 
imperfectly malleable iron, that of the latter, cast-iron, or 
iron combined with more or less carbon. 

The first and older process is uncertain in its results, in- 
volves considerable expense, and as there are no efficient 
means of getting rid of the earthy impurities, it necessitates 
the employment of rich magnetic, specular, or heematite ores ; 
on account of these defects, it is now seldom employed. The 
ores to be reduced by this process were heated with charcoal 
in open furnaces, the fire being urged by a blast. The oxy- 
gen, water, and volatile substances were driven off, and the 
iron — carburized and partly fused — sunk to the bottom of the 
hearth. The blast was then directed downward, so as to play 
over the surface of the iron, and oxidized the greater part of 
the combined carbon ; during this operation the iron became 
tough and malleable, and fit for the hammer. 

The process of smelting in the blast furnace is now almost 
universally adopted for the reduction of iron ores, and for the 
cheapness and working qualities of the metal produced, as 
well as for the rapidity of the manufacture, it is decidedly 
superior to all others. 

Ores which contain much carbonic acid, water, or volatile 
matter, were at one time invariably subjected to a prepara- 
tory process of calcination, but since the introduction of the 
hot-blast, they are now frequently employed in the raw state. 



IRON. ] 



[ Plate 1. 




1 '^^ -^ A^\^>^^ 



J ^ 



JP 



' ml 



Fi'a 3. 



Iron — Manufacture. 337 

The calcination is sometimes effected in the open air, by stack- 
ing the ore with coal, setting fire to it, and allowing it to 
burn out ; but this method is liable to serious objection. It 
is impossible to keep the temperature uniform throughout the 
heap, and in consequence, while some portions are scarcely 
affected, others are fused together into large masses, which 
cannot be smelted without difficulty, even when broken up. 
Apart from the irregularity and uncertainty of the open air 
process, it appears to be more expensive than the calcination 
in kilns, when the admission of air is entirely under com- 
mand. These ovens or kilns are usually built of masonry, 
and are placed, if possible, on a level with the charging 
platform of the smelting furnace. The argillaceous ores lose, 
during this process, 20 to 30 per cent. ; the carbonaceous, 
30 to 40 per cent, of their weight. 

The blast furnace consists of a large mass of masonry, 
usually square at the base, from which the sides are carried 
up in a slightly slanting direction, so as to form, externally, a 
truncated pyramid. In the sides there are large arched re- 
cesses, in which are the openings into the furnace for the ad- 
mission of the blast, and for running out the metal and cin- 
der ; at the top of the furnace is a cylindrical erection of 
brickwork, called the tunnel-head, for protecting the workmen 
from the heated gases rising from the furnace, and having 
one or more doors through which the charges of ore, fuel, 
and flux are thrown into the furnace. In front, protected 
by a roof, is the casting-house, where the metal is run from 
the furnace into moulds. 

Fig. 2 is a vertical section, and fig. 3 a plan of one of the 
furnaces at the Dowlais Iron Works. Mr. Truran, in a re- 
cently published and elaborate work on iron, has figured and 
described it. He states that it is one of the largest class, 
38 feet square at the base, diminishing upward 3 inches for 
every vertical foot, till it attains a height of 25 feet, where 
the square form ends with a moulded cap ; above this, the 
form is circular, diminishing in diameter at a similar rate, and 
finishing at top with a plain moulded cornice, as a support 
for the charging platform. In the section and plan A is the 
hearth, 8 feet high and 8 feet in diameter. BB the boshes, 
rising to the height of 15 feet, and 18 feet wide at their 
greatest diameter. From the top of the boshes the body of 
22 



338 Five Black Arts. 

the furnace contracts, in a barrel-shaped curve, so that at the 
charging platform D, at a height of 50 feet, it is only ten feet 
in diameter ; E is the tunnel-head, with doors of iron, to admit 
the charges of ore and fuel ; FBT the tujere-houses, arched 
over and spread outward, with the openings into the furnace 
for admitting the blast. G, the opening through which the 
iron is run from the furnace. The exterior is generally built 
of stone, and requires to be strongly bound with iron hoops, 
to prevent fracture from the expansion of the interior by the 
heat. The interior is lined with fire-brick set in fire-clay, 
a space of 2 or 3 inches being left between the two courses, 
to allow the expansion of the inner course. The hearth and 
boshes were usually constructed of refractory sandstone grit, 
or conglomerate, but fire-bricks are now chiefly used, and 
although they do not last so long, they are, in the end, more 
economicaf, and may be replaced whenever the furnace is ' 
blown out. The proper inclination of the boshes is a point 
of much importance, so that the materials, whilst smelting, 
may neither press too heavily downward, nor yet be so re- 
tarded as to adhere in a half-liquid state to the brickwork, 
and cool there, thus forming what are known by the name of 
scaffolds^ the removal of which is a source of great incon- 
venience. 

Another form of furnace is occasionally used for smelting, 
called the cupola, and built much more slightly than the 
blast furnace. Its form is circular, and from the boshes up- 
ward it is constructed of fire-brick, one, or sometimes two, 
courses in thickness. It is strongly bound together with 
wrought-iron hoops, and pillars of cast-iron, bolted at each 
end to imbedded rings of the same metal, rise through the 
foundation to the summit of the tuyere arches, giving con- 
siderable firmness and stability to the structure. Cheapness 
and facility of construction are much in its favor, and although 
objections have been made to the thinness of its sides, as per- 
mitting great loss of heat by radiation, it has met with very 
general adoption. 

In addition to the cupola furnace, another of the same 
character has of late years been introduced. It consists of 
a truncated cone, composed entirely of boiler plates riveted 
together. On the four opposite sides recesses are cut to ad- 
mit the tuyeres and the opening from the hearth into the 



Iron — Manufacture. 339 

casting-house. The interior of the furnace is lined ^Yith fire- 
brick and fire-clay in the usual way, and this plate furnace 
is not only perfectly secure, as regards the expansion and 
contraction, but it is found to be economical and to answer 
every purpose in common with the large stone and iron-bound 
furnaces. 

The blast is usually created by a steam-engine ; a piston 
being attached to the extremity of the beam, working in a 
cylinder of large diameter, and forcing the air through proper 
valves into a large spherical reservoir, constructed of boiler- 
plate, whence its own elasticity causes it to flow in a regular 
unintermitting stream into the furnace. A cylindrical vessel, 
open at bottom, and immersed in a pit of water, has some- 
times been used to regulate the pressure of the blast, but the 
■water evaporated is detrimental to the working of the furnace. 
The nozzles by which the blast is directed into the furnace 
are made of cast or wrought-iron, and sometimes a current 
of water is conveyed round their extremities to keep them 
cool. The number of blow-pipe nozzles to each furnace varies 
at different works ; the usual number is three, one for each 
of the tuyere houses, but sometimes six, eight, or twelve are 
employed ; it, however, appears questionable whether this is 
not objectionable, as the density and penetrating power of 
the blast is considerably diminished by this system of diff"usion. 
This, however, is a point which can only be decided by prac- 
tice, and must be left to the judgment of the smelter. The 
usual pressure of the blast as it enters into the furnace is 
3i- lbs. per square inch, but in some cases it is as much as 
5 lbs. per square inch. 

The communication between the ground and the tunnel- 
head is effected in various ways. In South Wales the fur- 
naces are usually built on a declivity, which affords ready 
means of access from behind ; sometimes an incline is con- 
structed, or other contrivances, such as the balance and pneu- 
matic lifts, are resorted to for the elevation of the materials. 

The dimensions and form of the blast furnace vary greatly, 
according to the fashion of the district, and the notions of the 
builder. Yet so much does the quantity and quality of the 
iron depend upon the size of the furnace and strength of the 
blast, that we may venture to assert that the production varies 
in the ratio of the cubical contents of the furnace, and the 



340 Five Black Arts. 

volume of air admitted. Mr. Truran gives the following 
particulars of the Dowlais Foundry iron furnace : " The 
capacity is 275 cubic yards. It is blown with a blast of 
5390 cubic feet of [cold] air per minute. The materials 
charged at the top consist of calcined argillaceous ore, coal, 
and limestone. The yield or consumption averages 48 cwts. 
of calcined ore, 60 cwts. of coal, and 17 cwts. of broken 
limestone, to 20 cwts. of crude iron obtained. The weekly 
make of iron is occasionally over 13^0 tons. The weekly 
product of cinder amounts to 250 tons. For the production 
of white iron for the forge, in furnaces of the same capacity 
as the foregoing, a larger volume of the blast is employed, 
along with a different burden of materials. The blast aver- 
ages 7370 feet per minute. The consumption of materials 
to one ton of iron averages 28 cwts. of calcined argillaceous 
ore, 10 cwts. of haematite, 10 cwts. of forge and finery 
cinders, 42 cwts. of coal, and 14 cwts. of limestone. With 
these materials the weekly produce amounts to 170 tons of 
crude iron, and 310 tons of cinder." 

The action which takes place in the blast furnace is as 
follows : The contents being raised to an intense heat by 
the combustion of the fuel, are brought into a softened state ; 
the limestone parts with its carbonic acid, and combining 
with the earthy ingredients of the ironstone, forms, with them, 
a liquid slag, whilst the separated metallic particles, descend- 
ing slowly through the furnace, are deoxidized and fused ; in 
their passage they imbibe a portion of carbon, and at last 
settle down in the hearth, from whence they are run off into 
pigs about every twelve hours ; the slag, being lighter, floats 
upon the surface of the liquid metal, and is constantly flow- 
ing out over a notch in the dam-plate, level with the top 
of the hearth. This slag indicates, by its appearance, the 
manner in which the furnace is working ; thus, if the cinder 
is liquid, nearly transparent, or of a light grayish color, and 
has a fracture like limestone, a favorable state of the furnace 
is indicated. Tints of blue, yellow, or green are caused by 
a portion of oxide of iron passing into the slag, and show 
that the furnace is working cold. The worst appearance of 
the cinder is, however, a deep brown or black color, the slag 
flowing in a broad hot rugged stream, and indicating that the 



Iron — Manufacture. 341 

supply of coke is not sufficient to deoxidize the whole of the 
iron. 

During the process of smelting, the interior of the furnace 
requires to be very carefully watched. The stream of air 
constantly rushing in at the tuyeres, exerts a chilling agency 
on the melted matter directly opposed to it at its entrance. 
The consequence of this is the formation of rude perforated 
cones of indurated scoriae, stretching from either side hori- 
zontally into the furnace, each one having its base directly over 
the embouchure of a blast-pipe. When these project only 
to a certain extent, they are favorable to the working of the 
furnace, as the blast is thrown into the center, and prevented 
from passing up the sides and burning the brickwork. Some- 
times, however, when the furnace is driving cold and slow, 
these conduits of slag become so strong, and jut out so far 
as to meet in the middle, and thus cause a great obstruction 
to the entrance and ascent of the blast. When this happens, 
there is usually no remedy but to increase the burden, that 
is, to increase the quantity of mine or ore to the charge. 
This caus^es an intense heat, the furnace is said to work hot, 
and the conduits of slag drop off from the sides. This, 
however, is followed by bad as well as good consequences ; 
the brickwork is frequently melted, and, for a time, the iron 
produced is small in quantity and of the worst quality. To 
bring the furnace again to its proper state, the burden must 
be reduced ; the sides then become cool, new tubes of slag 
are formed, and the iron produced is good. 
J At the end of every twelve hours, more or less, the furnace 
is tapped, that is to say, the aperture in the dam-stone, which, 
at the commencement, had been stopped up with a mixture of 
loam and sand, is re-opened, and the metal contained in the 
hearth allowed to flow out into moulds, made in the sand of 
the cast-house floor, thus forming a cast or sough of pigs. 
When this operation ceases, the dam -stone is again secured, 
and the work proceeds as before. In this manner a furnace 
is kept continually going, night and day, and never ceases to ' 
work until repairs are necessary. Incessant action has even been 
thought necessary to the successful carrying on of an iron- 
work, but the example of perhaps the largest ironmaster in 
South Wales has shown, contrary to general practice in that 
district, that smelting may be discontinued for at least one 



S42 Five Black Arts. 

day in the week -without any very serious derangement of 
operations. 

Thus far we have confined our observations to the produc- 
tion of iron by the cold-blast process ; we have now to con- 
sider the changes introduced by the employment of a heated 
blast. 

In the year 1828, Mr. J. Beaumont Neilson, a practical 
engineer at Glasgow, took out a patent for an " improved 
application of air to produce heat in fires, forges, and fur- 
naces, where bellows or other blowing apparatus are re- 
quired." Mr. Neilson proposed to pass the current of air 
through suitably shaped vessels, where it was to be heated 
before it entered the furnace. In this simple substitution of 
a hot-blast, heated in a separate apparatus, for a cold-blast 
heated in the furnace itself, consists the whole invention. 

Like most other improvements, the progress of this was at 
first slow. Retarded by practical difficulties, which beset all 
new processes in their first use — stopped every now and then 
by the prejudices of custom and ignorance, which cling with 
inveterate tenacity to maxims of established practice, and re- 
pel indiscriminately innovations which improve and those 
which modify without improving — the invention was more 
than once on the point of being abandoned. A great part 
of the interest in its possible remuneration was transferred 
by the inventor to strangers, whose combined efforts and influ- 
ence were necessary to insure its success. But though thus 
tardy in its first steps and feeble in its early efforts, the hot-blast 
process is now adopted at the greater number of the iron-works 
of Great Britain, and other parts of Europe and America. 

It is perhaps not generally known that practical men, pre- 
vious to Mr. Neilson's invention, universally believed that 
the colder the blast the better was the quality and quantity of 
the iron produced ; and this opinion appeared to be confirmed 
by the fact that the furnaces worked better in winter than in 
summer. Acting on such views, the ironmaster actually re- 
sorted to artificial means of refrigeration, to reduce the tem- 
perature of the blast before it entered the furnace. The 
fact of the improved action of the furnace in winter may per- 
haps be explained as a consequence of the diminished amount 
of the aqueous vapor contained in the atmosphere in cold 
weather ; and the opinion that the low temperature is the 



Iron — Manufacture. 343 

cause of the alleged increase of production has been shown 
to be wrong by the success of Mr. Neilson's invention. 

This simple invention affects only the transit of the air from 
the blowing cylinder to the furnace, an oven or stove being 
interposed, through which, in appropriately shaped vessels, 
the air in conducted, and in which it is heated to 600° or 
800° Fahr,, or to any other temperature adapted for the pur- 
pose of smelting. 

The earliest and simplest plan by which the blast was heat- 
ed is shown in the sketch, fig. 4. In an oven of brickwork 
0000, with a fire fed by the door D, a large cylindrical tube 
or receiver h h, made of riveted boiler-plate, about 3 feet in 
diameter, and 8 or 10 feet long, was placed. The pipes, B 
and S, attached to the receiver h h at the opposite ends, 
communicated with the blowing-cylinder and smel ting-furnace 
respectively. Lunular partitions ppp, projecting from op- 
posite sides on the interior of the receiver, caused the air 
passing through it to inpinge alternately first on one side and 
then on the other, in order that the temperature might be 
uniformly and effectively communicated from the metal to 
the blast. By this means a moderate current of air has been 
heated up to 300° or 400° Fahr.* ^ 

The figures of the transverse pipes vary considerably at 
different iron-works. Sometimes they rise up and form a 
large semicircular arch over the fire, 8 or 10 feet perpendicu- 
larly, and are then connected by an arch at the top ; some- 
times they cross the fire in the form of a pointed arch, vari- 
ously acuminate, or a single large tube is used, traversing 
the furnace in a long spiral direction. Their cross-section 
is as various as the form in which they are bent ; pipes of 
circular, flattened, elliptical, rectangular, heart-shaped, and 
other sectional forms have been employed, in order to increase 
the heating surface in proportion to the volume of the blast. 
All these forms of apparatus, although admirably adapted for 
heating the air, are liable to fracture, from the unequal ex- 
pansion of the metal. 

The more difficult the reduction of the ironstone the smaller 
must be the diameter of the hearth, so as to enable the blast 
to penetrate and circulate throughout the whole of its con- 
tents. In other conditions, where the ores are easily reduced, 

* Various modifications of this plaa are in use. 



344 EivE Black Arts. 

hearths of 9 feet diameter have been introduced with great 
advantage, and that without detriment to the quality of the 
iron produced. The diameter of the body of the furnace is 
likewise regulated by the quality of the materials used, and 
in cases where the coal is not bituminous, and the ore hard, 
a large diameter is found to work very irregularly ; and the 
results have been, where furnaces have been erected 18 feet 
diameter, to have them reduced to only 6 feet. 

The height of the furnace is also regulated by the nature 
of the materials and the strength of the blast by which they 
are reduced. Sometimes, when the coal is soft and crushes 
by the superincumbent pressure, it is bound or compressed to 
such an extent as to prevent the blast from penetrating the mass, 
and causes an irregular working of the furnace ; and, more- 
over, under these conditions, it makes what is called white or 
silvery iron. 

The pressure of the blast requires also to be regulated to 
suit the materials, and, according to the workings at Coltness 
Works, the pressure is about 4 lbs. on the square inch, and as 
much as 10,000 cubic feet of air is discharged into the fur- 
nace per minute. The temperature of the blast is 694° Fahr., 
and the area of the heating surface of the apparatus for 
raising that temperature is 3500 square feet. 

The quantity of materials to make a ton of iron at these 
works varies in some relative proportion to their densities ; 
but the following may be taken as a fair average of the con- 
sumption of fuel, ore, limestone, etc. : 



Ton. 


Cwt. 


Ton. 


Cwt. 


1 


10 of raw coal. 





4 of coal for heaters. 


1 


17 of calcined ironstone. 





4 of •' for blowing engine. 





12 of broken limestone. 







With the above charges the furnaces will produce from 168 to 170 tons 
per week, or 8700 tons of good iron per annum. 

With regard to the advantages and defects of the hot-blast 
process, much has been said on both sides, and the question 
does not appear by any means settled. It is asserted, on the 
one hand, that iron reduced by the hot-blast loses much of 
its strength, whilst, on the other, it is contended that the 
quality of the iron is richer, more fluid, and better adapted 
for general purposes than that produced by the cold-blast. 
The advocates of the hot-blast say that the process has in- 



moN. ] 



[ Plate 2. 




Fiq 4. 




'Mf.liiiai 



U »^ u 



Iron — Manufacture. 345 

creased the production and diminished the consumption of 
coal three or four fold ; and the upholders of the cold-blast 
maintain that the same effects may be produced, to almost 
the same extent, by a judicious proportion of the shape and 
size of the interior of the furnace, a denser blast, and greater 
attention on the part of the superintendent to the process. 

On these points it appears to us that although the hot-blast 
has enabled the manufacturer to smelt inferior ores, cinder- 
heaps, and other improper materials, and to send into the 
market an inferior description of iron ; this is no reason for 
its rejection, but rather an argument in its favor. It is true 
that when a strong rigid iron is required for such works as 
bridges or artillery, the somewhat uncertain character of hot- 
blast metal renders it objectionable, but this appears to be due 
rather to the carelessness or want of attention in the manu- 
facture than to the use of heated air or defects in the process. 
On the other hand, the hot-blast, by maintaining a higher 
temperature in the furnace, insures more effectually the com- 
bination of the carbon with the iron, and produces a fluid 
metal of good working qualities, generally superior to cold- 
blast iron, in cases where great strength is not required ; and, 
moreover, we have yet to learn why even the strongest and most 
rigid iron cannot be made by this process. The comparative 
strength of hot and cold-blast iron will, however, be given in 
another part of this article ; for the present it is sufficient 
to observe that the results of the experiments are not unfa- 
vorable to the hot-blast iron, either as regards its resistance 
to a transverse strain, or its power to resist impact. 

Dr. Clark, Professor of Chemistry in the University of 
Aberdeen, investigated the merits of the hot and cold-blast 
process in regard to the consumption of fuel, as early as 
1834-5. He states, that after the hot-blast had been brought 
fully into operation at the Clyde Iron Works, " during the 
first six months of the year 1833, one ton of cast-iron was 
made by means of 2 tons 5^^ cwt. of coal, -which had not 
previously to be converted into coke ; adding to this 8 cwt. 
of coal for heating, we have 2 tons 13J cwt. of coal re- 
quired to make one ton of iron. In 1829, when the cold- 
blast was in operation, 8 tons IJ cwt. of coal had to be 
used. This being almost exactly three times as much, we 
have from the change of the cold-blast to the hot, combined 



346 Five Black Arts. 

•with the use of coal instead of coke, three times as much 
now made from the same quantity of coal." Dr. Clark adds 
the following statistics of the Clyde Iron Works : 

" In 1829, the weekly produce of three furnaces, cold air 
and coke being used, was 110 tons 14 cwt. ; and the aver- 
age of coal to one ton of iron was 8 tons 1 cwt. 1 qr. 

" In 1830, the weekly produce of three furnaces, coke, and 
air at 300° Fahr. being used, was 162 tons 2 cwt. ; and the 
average of coal to one ton of iron was reduced to 5 tons 3 
cwt. 1 qr. 

" In 1833, the weekly produce of four furnaces, raw coal, 
and air heated to 600° being used, was 245 tons; and the 
average of coal to one ton of iron was reduced to 2 tons 5 
cwt. 1 qr. 

" On the whole then, the application of the hot-blast has 
caused the same fuel to reduce three times as much iron as 
before, and the same blast twice as much." 

This decrease in the amount of fuel and blast required for 
the reduction of iron. Dr. Clark accounts for by showing that 
in an ordinary furnace, " 2 cwt. of air a minute or 6 tons 
an hour are injected into the furnace." This he considers 
" a tremendous refrigeratory passing through the hottest part 
of the furnace," and to a great extent repressing the temper- 
ature which is necessary for the complete and rapid reduction 
of the iron. 

Mr. Truran considers that " writers on the hot-blast have 
greatly exaggerated the effects of this invention on the iron 
manufacture of this country. If we are to believe the ma- 
jority of them, the great reductions which have been effected 
within the last 25 years, in the quantities of fuel and flux to 
smelt a given weight of iron, and the large increase of make 
from the furnaces, is entirely owing to the use of this inven- 
tion. That the hot-blast, under certain circumstances, has 
also effected a saving in the consumption of fuel, and also 
augmented the weekly make, we freely admit. But the 
saving of fuel, and increase of make due to its employment, 
is not generally one-fourth of the quantity which writers 
have asserted." Here Mr. Truran is at issue with Dr. Clark, 
and denies the cooling effect of a cold-blast. He attributes 
the effects of a heated-blast, " first to the caloric thrown into 
the furnace along with the blast, enabling a corresponding 



Iron — Manufacture. 347 

quantity of coal to be withdrawn from the burden of mate- 
rials, with a proportionate reduction in the volume of blast, 
the effects of which are seen in an augmentation of the make, 
but do not result in the saving of fuel ; secondly, to the re- 
duced volume of blast and large proportion of caloric which 
it carries into the furnace, causing a diminished consumption 
of fuel in the upper parts of the furnace." Although we 
do not agree with all Mr. Truran's strictures on the hot-blast, 
the consumption of fuel in the throat is, nevertheless, a ques- 
tion well worthy of investigation. The combustion is of 
course largely increased by the narrow form of throat given 
to furnaces, which greatly increases the effect of the blast 
there, and accounts for the difficulty of using those kinds of 
coal, in the raw state, which splinter if rapidly heated. If 
Mr. Truran's conjectures be correct, and it be found, that 
by increasing the area of the throat, raw coal and anthracite 
can be advantageously used with the cold -blast, the superi- 
ority of the hot-blast will not be so decidedly marked. This 
must, however, be determined by practice ; as at present, 
certainly, it is well known that the anthracite and splint coal 
can be used most effectively and economically with the hot- 
blast. 

We quote from one more authority on this subject. M. 
Dufrenoy, in his report to the Director-General of Mines in 
France, states, that upon heating the air proceeding from the 
blowing cylinder up to 612° Fahr., a considerable saving in 
fuel was effected by the use of raw coal instead of coke, and 
that this caused no derangement of the working of the fur- 
nace or deterioration of the iron produced. On the contrary, 
" the quality of the metal was improved, and a furnace which, 
when charged with coke, produced only about half No. 1 and 
half No. 2 pig-iron, gave a much larger proportion of No. 1 
after the substitution of raw coal. Besides this, the quantity 
of limestone was considerably diminished." This last cir- 
cumstance, according to M. Dufrenoy, is due to the increased 
temperature of the furnace, which fuses more readily the 
earthy matter and other impurities in combination with the 
ores. 

To show the saving effected, M. Dufrenoy gives the quan- 
tities used in each of the experiments at the Clyde Iron 
Works ; 



348 Five Black Arts. 

la 1829, the combustion being produced by cold air, the consuraptioa for 
one ton of iron was — 

Tons. Cwt. Tons. Cwfc. 
Coal— for fusion, 3 tons of coke, 

corresponding with . 6 13 

" for blowing engine . 1 



Total coal used .... 7 13 

Limestone .... 10^ 

In 1831, the furnaces being blown with air heated to 450° Fahr.— 

Tons. Cwt. Tons. Cwt. 
Coal — for fusion, 1 ton 18 cwt. 

coke, corresponding with . 4 6 

" for the hot air apparatus . 5 

" for blowing engine . 7 



Total coal used . . . . 4 18 

Limestone .... 09 

In July, 1833, the temperature of the blast being raised to 612° Fahr., 
and the fusion effected by raw coal, the consumption per ton of iron ■ 

Tons. Cwt. Tons. Cwt. 
Coal — for fusion . . .20 

" for the hot air apparatus . 8 

" for blowing engine . 11 



Total coal used .... 2 19 

Limestone . . . • . 7 

Since that time, the employment of a blast heated to 800° 
or 900° has still further increased the weekly production and 
saving of fuel. 

The Waste Gfases. — From the description that we have 
given of the smelting operations, it is evident that a large 
volume of gaseous products are constantly escaping at the 
top of the blast-furnace. These are found to contain a large 
proportion of unconsumed inflammable gas, capable of de- 
veloping heat, and in countries where fuel is expensive, it is 
of great importance that these should be applied to useful 
purposes, and not be wasted in the atmosphere. Various con- 
trivances have been adopted for this purpose, and in some 
places, particularly on the Continent, they have been utilized 
with great economy. 

To enable the waste gases to be collected and applied to 
raising steam, heating hot-blast stoves, etc., without detri- 
ment to the working of the blast-furnace, it is necessary to 
withdraw them at an elevation where they have completed 
their work, yet at such a distance from the mouth of the fur- 



Iron — Manufacture. 349 

nace that they may be extracted in a dry state, and before 
they come into contact with the atmosphere, so as to cause 
combustion. This may be effected, either by increasing the 
height of the blast-furnace, withdrawing a portion of the 
gases through apertures in the side, or, if the furnace be not 
too large, by closing the top of the furnace with a movable 
door. 

The Conversion of Crude into Malleable Iron. 

The conversion of the carburized crude iron, obtained from 
the blast-furnace, into malleable or wrought iron is effected 
by several operations of an oxidizing character, in which it 
is sought to separate, in the gaseous state, the carbon con- 
tained in the iron, by combining it with oxygen, whilst the 
other metals alloyed with the iron and the phosphorus pass 
into the slag. 

In reference to subsequent operations, the iron produced 
in the smelting furnace may be be divided into two kinds — 
that reduced by charcoal and that reduced by coke or raw 
coal. When charcoal iron has to be converted by charcoal, 
as in Sweden, it is decarburized in the charcoal refinery, with 
or without an intervening process. Where coal can be ob- 
tained, however, it is now usually converted by the process 
of puddling. Pig-iron produced by coke or coal is converted 
into malleable iron either by decarburation in the refinery 
or oxidizing hearth, and subsequent puddling, or it is con- 
verted at once in the puddling furnace by the process of 
boiling, which is equally effective, and is now more generally 
practiced. 

This last process, as the one most generally adopted in 
Great Britain, deserves a special notice, and we are fortunate 
in having before us the particulars of the manner in which it 
is conducted by Messrs. Rushton and Eckersley of Bolton. 
This establishment is probably one of the most modern and 
complete of the kind in the kingdom ; it is one that has 
spared no expense in the application of useful inventions, and 
has kept pace with every improvement that has taken place 
in the manufacture of bar and plate iron for the last fifteen 
years. 

The machinery and appliances at these works consist of — 



350 Five Black Arts. 

6 Steam engines, of 180 total nominal HP. 

2 Five-ton and 2 fifty-cwt. steam hammers. 

3 Helve hammers. 

1 Set of puddled iron rolls. 

1 Set of boiler plate rolls. 

1 Merchant train and balling mill. 
16 Puddling fnrnaces. 
14 Balling and scrap furnaces. 
And other machinery, such as plate and bar shears, lathes, etc. 

At Messrs. Rushton and Eckerslej's works, a small pro- 
portion of the Cumberland haematite ore is mixed with the 
crude pig-iron to be converted, as it is found to assist in the 
process of boiling in the puddling furnace, and in other re- 
spects to facilitate the process and improve the quality of the 
iron. 

The crude pig-iron is assorted according to the degree and 
uniformity of its carburization, and classed as Nos. 1, 2, 3, 
etc. ; No. 1 being most highly carburizcd, No. 2 less so, and 
so on to No. 4, which contains much more oxygen than the 
others. The carbon combined with iron gives it fusibility and 
fluidity, but deprives it of ductility. To render it malleable 
and capable of being welded, it must be deprived as far as 
possible of all the extraneous substances which have been 
mixed with it in the blast-furnace, more especially of the car- 
bon. JPrimafacie, therefore, it would appear that the highly 
carburized pig-iron is the most suitable for casting, whilst that 
containing least carbon is best adapted for conversion into 
malleable iron ; hence, in the trade, the crude iron is divided 
into foundry and forge pigs. 

The pigs, however, in which carbon most predominates, and 
which, as a rule, have been most eifectually separated from 
all other impurities during the process of smelting, are in many 
respects preferable for the manufacture of wrought iron ; up 
to this time, however, great practical difficulties have attended' 
the decarburization of iron containing so much carbon, and 
the white or forge iron is almost always preferred, measures 
having been taken for depriving it of the metals and earthy 
impurities not separated in the blast-furnace. 

With regard to the process of refining, we may observe 
that the crude iron is melted in a hollow fire, and partially 
decarburized by the action of a blast of air forced over its 
surface by a fan or blowing engine. The carbon having a 
greater affinity for the oxygen than for the iron, combines 



Iron — Manufacture. 351 

with it, and passes off as gaseous carbonic oxide or carbonic 
acid. During this process, a portion of the silicum, etc., is 
fused out and separated from the iron. It is obvious from 
the above that the iron to be refined, being placed in contact 
■with fuel at a high temperature, is liable to be deteriorated 
by the admixture of sulphur and other impurities of the fuel ; 
and as the iron is only partially exposed to the action of the 
blast, the operation is necessarily, under these circumstances, 
imperfect. From the refinery the metal is run out into large 
moulds, and is then broken up into what is technically dis- 
tinguished as ''^ plate-metal y 

The process of puddling succeeds that of refining ; and 
in this operation the reverberatory furnace is employed, with 
the fire separated by a partition or bridge from the hearth, 
on which is placed the metal to be puddled. By this ar- 
rangement the flame is conducted over the surface of the 
metal, creating an intense heat, though the deleterious por- 
tions of the fuel cannot mix with the iron. In this furnace 
the iron is kept in a state of fusion, whilst the workman, 
called the " puddler," by means of a rake or rabble^ agitates 
the metal so as to expose, as far as he is able, the whole of 
the charge to the action of the oxygen passing over it from 
the fire. By this means the carbon is oxidized, and the metal 
is gradually reduced to a tough, pasty condition, and subse- 
quently to a granular form, somewhat resembling heaps of 
boiled rice with the grains greatly enlarged. In this condi- 
tion of the furnace the cinder or earthy impurities yield to 
the intense heat, and flow off from the mass over the bottom 
in a highly fluid state. 

The iron at this stage is comparatively pure, and quickly 
becomes capable of agglutination ; the puddler then collects 
the metallic granules or particles with his rabble^ and rolls 
them together, backward and forward, over the furnace bot- 
tom, into balls of convenient ' dimensions (about the size of 
thirteen-inch shells), when he removes them from the furnace 
to be subjected to the action of the hammer or mechanical 
pressure necessary to give to the iron homogeneity and fiber. 
These processes of refining and puddling have universally 
been employed till recently ; but improvements have rendered 
it simpler, and the refining process is now very generally 
abolished. 



352 Five Black Arts. 

Shortly after the employment of the puddling process, it 
was found advantageous to mix a portion of crude iron with 
the refined plate metal, the expense of the process of refin- 
ing being saved upon the iron used in the crude state ; and 
trusting to the decarburizing effects of the puddling furnace, 
it was found that the refining process might be altogether dis- 
pensed with, if the crude iron containing a proportion of ox- 
ygen and very little carbon was employed. In this single 
process it is to be observed, that as all the carbon has to be 
got rid of in the puddling furnace, the evolution of gas is 
much more violent, the fluid iron boiling and bubbling ener- 
getically during the period of its disengagement, and hence 
the operation has acquired the popular name of the " boiling" 
process. 

In this operation the pig-iron when melted is more fluid, 
on account of containing a greater proportion of carbon than 
the metal from the refinery, and requires more labor in stir- 
ring it about and submitting it to the action of the current of 
air ; the process, moreover, is attended by a greater waste 
of iron than puddling either plate, or crude iron and plate 
mixed, but not so great a loss as in the two operations of re- 
fining and puddling. It must, however, be admitted that the 
superior fluidity of the iron in the boiling process has a more 
injurious action on the furnace. Notwithstanding these ob- 
jections, the system of boiling without the intermediate pro- 
cess of refining has been gaining ground for the last ten years, 
and in many places has entirely superseded the use of the 
refinery ; recent events have therefore led to the conclusion, 
that in a short time the refining process will have become a 
thing of the past. 

Numerous attempts have been made to secure a more sci- 
entific and perfect decarburization of the crude iron, but 
without success. One improvement, however, recently pat- 
ented by Mr. James Nasmyth, gives promise of making the 
boiling process as nearly perfect as we may hope to see it. 
It has been in use for two years at the Bolton Iron Works, 
and from its constant employment in the puddling furnaces 
of that establishment, it has given direct proof of its utility, 
and is gradually extending itself among the large manufac- 
turers as its advantages become known. 

The invention consists of the introduction of a small quan- 



Iron — Manufacture. 353 

tity of steam at about 5 lbs. pressure per square inch, into 
the molten metal as soon as it is fused, as the oxygen of the 
steam has at that high temperature a greater aflfinity for car- 
bon than for the hydrogen with which it is combined or for 
the iron, the carbon is rapidly oxidized off. The liberated 
hydrogen has no ajBQnity for the iron, but unites with sulphur, 
phosphorus, arsenic, etc. — substances very injurious to the 
quality of the iron, if present even in very minute quantities, 
and yet frequently found in the ores and fuel. 

The mode of operating is as follows : The steam is con- 
veyed from the boiler to a vertical pipe fixed near the fur- 
nace door, having at its lower end a small tap or syphon, to 
let off the condensed steam, and prevent its being blown into 
the furnace. A cock with several jointed pieces of pipe are 
fastened to the flange of the vertical pipe, so as to form, as 
it were, jointed bracket pipes, somewhat similar to those of 
gas-pipes, which allow free motion in every direction. This 
apparatus is introduced into the furnace, immediately the iron 
is melted, the puddler moving it slowly about in the molten 
iron, while the steam pours upon it through the bent end of 
the tube. In the course of from five to eight minutes the 
mass begins to thicken, the steam pipe is withdrawn, and the 
operation finished in the ordinary way with the common iron 
rabble. The time saved by this process in every operation or 
heat, as it is technically called, averages from ten to fifteen 
minutes, and that during the hottest and most laborious part of 
the operation. 

By means of this apparatus, the highly carburized pig-iron, 
which is the most free from impurities, is rendered malleable 
in one furnace operation, without the deteriorating adjuncts of 
the refining and puddling process as ordinarily practiced ; in 
this operation no deleterious substance can combine with the 
iron, whilst in the refinery process the mixture of the fuel 
and metal is liable to deteriorate the latter with sulphur, sili- 
cum, etc. This new process, it is affirmed, has a beneficial 
effect in purifying the iron with greater economy and rapid- 
ity than any other process with which we are acquainted. 

Irrespective of the improvements just described, there is 
another which is extensively used on the Continent, denom- 
inated the Silesian gas furnace. The new Silesian furnaces 
which are used in the manufacture of iron in that country, 



354' Five Black Arts. 

in place of our reverberatorj air furnaces, and are said, on 
good authority, to be a very great improvement, not only in 
regard to the entire prevention of smoke and the economy 
of fuel, but also in simplifying the wrought-iron manufacture, 
and enabling a less skilled class of workmen to manage the 
furnaces. 

The chief feature is the gas generator, which may be de- 
scribed as a close brick chamber with an opening at the bot- 
tom for the admission of air from a fan, by means of which 
the gases are driven out of the chamber into the furnace 
amongst the iron to be heated. At the point where the gases 
enter the furnace, a series of tuyeres are provided for the ad- 
mission of air from the same fan. The pipes that convey the 
air and the gas from the retort to the tuyeres are both pro- 
vided with valves in order that the attendant may modify the 
quantity from either source, so as to produce any intensity of 
flame the work may require, and also to produce perfect com- 
bustion, thus placing the entire action of the furnace under 
complete control. It is about eleven years since these fur- 
naces were first introduced, and notwithstanding the prejudices 
that were naturally raised against them, they are said to be 
now extensively adopted in the Silesian district, and in great 
favor with both the master and the workmen. 

In this description of furnace there appear to be three 
great advantages over the air furnace — 

1st. The entire absence of smoke in consequence of com- 
plete combustion. 

2d. The saving of upward of 33 per cent, in fuel, from 
the whole of the gaseous products being made available, and 
there being no necessity for the flame to pass up the chimney 
to produce draught, as in the case of the reverberatory fur- 
nace, which requires an inordinate supply of fuel as compared 
with what is wanted to work the fan. 

M. The absolute control the attendant has over the fur- 
nace, as regards the temperature and the simplicity with 
which it can be worked. Its operations in this respect are, 
according to those who have seen it at work, so perfect as to 
be as precise in its action as a machine. 

An apparently new light has been thrown on the conversion 
of iron, by a paper read by Mr. H. Bessemer at the meeting 
of the British Association for the advancement of science, 



Iron — Manufacture. 355 

held at Cheltenham in August, 1856. In this paper the 
author announces to the world the discovery of an entirely 
new system of operations for the manufacture of malleable 
iron and steel. The crude metal is converted, by one simple 
process, directly as it comes from the blast-furnace. We should 
detract from its clearness did we attempt to curtail the lucid 
description in which Mr. Bessemer has recommended his inven- 
tion to the manufacturers and the public ; we therefore give 
the account in his own words : 

Mr. Bessemer states that " for the last two years his atten- 
tion has been almost exclusively directed to the manufacture 
of malleable iron and steel, in which, however, he had made 
but little progress until within the last eight or nine months. 
The constant pulling down and rebuilding of furnaces, and 
the toil of daily experiments with large charges of iron, had 
begun to exhaust his patience, but the numerous observations 
he had made during this very unpromising period, all tended to 
confirm an entirely new view of the subject, which at that 
time forced itself upon his attention, viz. — that he could pro- 
duce a much more intense heat, without any furnace or fuel, 
than could be obtained by either of the modifications he had 
used, and consequently, that he should not only avoid the 
injurious action of mineral fuel on the iron under operation, 
but that he would, at the same time, avoid also the expense 
of the fuel. Some preliminary trials were made on from 
10 lbs. to 20 lbs. of iron, and although the process was 
fraught with considerable difiiculty, it exhibited such unmis- 
takable signs of success, as to induce him at once to put up 
an apparatus capable of converting about 7 cwt. of crude 
pig-iron into malleable iron in 30 minutes. With such masses 
of metal to operate on, the difficulties which beset the small 
laboratory experiments of 10 lbs. entirely disappeared. On 
this new field of inquiry, he set out with the assumption that 
crude iron contains about 5 per cent, of carbon ; that carbon 
cannot exist at a white heat in the presence of oxygen with- 
out uniting therewith, and producing combustion ; that such 
combustion would proceed with a rapidity dependent on the 
amount of surface of carbon exposed ; and, lastly, that the 
temperature which the metal would acquire would also be de- 
pendent on the rapidity with which the oxygen and carbon 
were made to combine, and consequently, that it was only neces- 



856 Five Black Arts. 

sary to bring the oxygen and carbon together in such a man- 
ner that a vast surface should be exposed to their mutual 
action, in order to produce a temperature hitherto unattaina- 
ble in our largest furnaces. With a view of testing practi- 
cally this theory, he constructed a cylindrical vessel of three 
feet in diameter, and five feet in height, somewhat like an 
ordinary cupola furnace, the interior of which was lined with 
fire-bricks, and at about two inches from the bottom of it he 
inserted five tuyere pipes, the nozzles of which were formed of 
well-burnt fire clay, the orifice of each tuyere being about 
three-eighths of an inch in diameter ; they were put into the 
brick lining from the outside, so as to admit of their removal 
and renewal in a few minutes, when they were worn out. At 
one side of the vessel, about half way up from the bottom, 
there was a hole made for running in the crude metal, and 
in the opposite side was a tap-hole, stopped with loam, by 
means of which the iron was run out at the end of the pro- 
cess. In practice, this converting vessel may be made of 
any convenient size, but he prefers that it should not hold less 
than one or more than five tons of fluid iron at each charge. 
The vessel should be placed so near to the blast-furnace as to 
allow the iron to flow along a gutter into it ; a small blast- 
cylinder is required, capable of compressing air to about 
8 lbs. or 10 lbs. per square inch. A communication having 
been made between it and the tuyeres before mentioned, the 
converting vessel will be in a condition to commence work ; 
it will, however, on the occasion of its first being used, after 
relining with fire-bricks, be necessary to make a fire in the 
interior with a few baskets of coke, so as to dry the brick- 
work and heat up the vessel for the first operation, after 
which the fire is to be carefully raked out at the tapping hole, 
which is again to be made good with loam. The vessel will 
then be in readiness to commence work, and may be so con- 
tinued until the brick lining, in the course of time, is worn 
away, and a new lining is required. The tuyeres, as before 
stated, were situated nearly close to the bottom of the vessel, 
the fluid metal therefore rose some eighteen inches or two 
feet above them. It was therefore necessary, in order to pre- 
vent the metal from entering the tuyer;e holes, to turn on the 
blast before allowing the fluid crude iron to run into the ves- 
sel from the blast-furnace. This having been done, and the 



Iron — Manufacture. 357 

fluid Iron run in, a rapid boiling up of the metal was heard 
going on within the vessel, the iron being tossed violently 
about, and dashed from side to side, shaking the vessel by 
the force with which it moved. Flame, accompanied by a 
few bright sparks, immediately issued from the throat of the 
converting vessel. This state of things lasted for about fif- 
teen or twenty minutes, during which time the oxygen in the 
atmospheric air combined with the carbon contained in the 
iron, producing carbonic acid gas, and at the same time evolv- 
ing a powerful heat. Now as this heat is generated in the 
interior of, and is diffusive in innumerable fiery bubbles 
throughout the entire mass, the vessel absorbs the greater 
part of it, and its temperature becomes immensely increased, 
and by the expiration of the fifteen or twenty minutes before 
named, that part of the carbon which appears mechanically 
mixed and . diffused through the crude iron has been entirely 
consumed. The temperature, however, is so high that the 
chemically combined carbon now begins to separate from the 
metal, as is at once indicated by an immense increase in the 
volume of flame rushing out of the throat of the vessel. The 
metal in the vessel now rises several inches above its natural 
level, and a light frothy slag makes its appearance, and is 
thrown out in large foam-like masses. This violent eruption 
of cinder generally lasts about five or six minutes, when all 
further appearance of it ceases, a steady and powerful flame 
replacing the shower of sparks and cinders which always ac- 
companies the boil. The rapid union of carbon and oxygen 
which thus takes place, adds still further to the temperature 
of the metal, while the diminished quantity of carbon present 
allows a part of the oxygen to combine with the iron which 
undergoes a combustion, and is converted into an oxide. At 
the excessive temperature that the metal has now acquired, 
the oxide, as soon as formed, undergoes fusion, and forms a 
powerful solvent of those earthy bases that are associated with 
the iron. The violent ebullition which is going on mixes most 
intimately the scorise and metal, every part of which is thus 
brought into contact with the fluid oxide, which will thus wash 
and cleanse the metal most thoroughly from the silica and 
other earthy bases, which are combined with the crude iron, 
while the sulphur and other volatile matters, which cling so 
tenaciously to iron at ordinary temperatures, are driven off. 



358 Five Black Arts. 

the sulphur combining with the oxygen, and forms sulphuric 
acid gas. The loss in weight of crude iron during its conver- 
sion into an ingot of malleable iron, was found, on a mean of 
four experiments, to be 12J per cent., to which will have to be 
added the loss of metal in the finishing rolls. This will make 
the entire loss probably not less than 18 per cent, instead of 
28 per cent., which is the loss on the present system. A large 
portion of this metal is, however, recoverable by treating with 
carbonaceous gases the rich oxides thrown out of the furnace 
during the boil. These slags are found to contain innumerable 
small grains of metallic iron, which are mechanically held in 
suspension in the slags, and may be easily recovered. It has 
already been stated that after the boil has taken place, a steady 
and powerful flame succeeds, which continues without any 
change for about ten minutes, when it rapidly falls off. As 
soon as this diminution is apparent, the workman knows that 
the process is completed, and that the crude iron has been 
converted into pure malleable iron, which he will form into 
ingots of any suitable size and shape by simply opening the 
tap-hole of the converting vessel, and allowing the fluid mal- 
leable iron to flow into the iron ingot moulds placed there to 
receive it. The masses of iron thus formed will be perfectly 
free from any admixture of cinder oxide, or other extraneous 
matters, and will be far more pure, and in a forwarder state 
of manufacture, than a pile formed of ordinary puddle bars. 
And thus, by a single process, requiring no manipulation or 
particular skill, and with only one workman, from three to 
five tons of crude iron passes into the condition of several 
piles of malleable iron, in from thirty to thirty-five minutes, 
with the expenditure of about one-third part the blast now 
used in a finery furnace with an equal charge of iron, and with 
the consumption of no other fuel than is contained in the 
crude iron. To those who are best acquainted with the- nature 
of fluid iron it may be a matter of surprise that a blast of 
cold air forced into melted crude iron is capable of raising its 
temperature to such a degree as to retain it in a perfect state 
cf fluidity, after it has lost all its carbon, and is in the condition 
of malleable iron, which, in the highest heat of our forges, 
only becomes a pasty mass. But such is the excessive tem- 
perature that may be arrived at, with a properly shaped con- 
verting vessel, and a judicious distribution of the blast, that 



Iron — Manufacture. 359 

not only may the fluidity of the metal be retained, but so 
much surplus heat can be created as to remelt the crop ends, 
ingot, runners, and other scrap, that is made throughout the 
process, and thus bring them, without labor or fuel, into in- 
gots of a quality equal to the rest of the charge of new metal. 
For this purpose a small arched chamber is formed immediately 
over the throat of the converting vessel, somewhat like the 
tunnel-head of the blast-furnace. This chamber has two or 
more openings in the side of it, and its floor is made to slope 
downward to the throat. As soon as a charge of fluid malleable 
iron has been drawn off from the converting vessel, the work- 
man will take the scrap intended to be worked into the next 
charge, and proceed to introduce the several small pieces into 
the small chamber, piling them up round the opening of the 
throat. When this is done, he will run in his charge of crude 
metal, and again commence the process. By the time the 
boil commences, the bar ends or other scrap will have ac- 
quired a white heat, and by the time it is over, most of them 
will have melted and run down into the charge. Any pieces, 
however, that remain, may then be pushed in by the work- 
man, and by the time the process is completed, they will all 
be melted and intimately combined with the rest of the 
charge ; so that all scrap iron, whether cast or malleable, may 
thus be used up without any loss or expense. As an exam- 
ple of the power that iron has of generating heat in this pro- 
cess, Mr. Bessemer mentions that when trying how small a 
set of tuyeres could be used, the size he had chosen proved 
too small, and after blowing into the metal for one hour 
and three-quarters, he could not get up heat enough with 
them to bring on the boil. The experiment was therefore dis- 
continued, during which time two-thirds of the metal solidi- 
fied, and the rest was run off. A larger set of tuyere pipes 
were then put in, and a fresh charge of fluid iron run into 
the vessel, which had the effect of entirely remelting the for- 
mer charge ; and when the whole was tapped out it exhibited, 
as usual, that intense and dazzling brightness peculiar to the 
electric light. 

" To persons conversant with the manufacture of iron, it will 
be at once apparent that the ingots of malleable metal which 
are produced by this process, will have no hard or steely parts, 
such as are found in puddled iron, requiring a great amount 



360 Five Black Arts. 

of rolling to blend them with the general mass, nor will such 
ingots require an excess of rolling to expel the cinder from 
the interior of the mass, since none can exist in the ingot, 
which is pure and perfectly homogeneous throughout, and 
hence requires only as much rolling as is necessary for the 
development of fiber ; it therefore follows that instead of 
forming a merchant bar or rail by the union of a number of 
separate pieces welded together, it will be far more simple 
and less expensive, to make several bars or rails from a single 
ingot ; doubtless this would have been done long ago had not 
the whole process been limited by the size of the ball which 
the puddler could make. 

" The facility which the new process affords, of making 
large masses, will enable the manufacturer to produce bars 
that, on the old mode of working, it was impossible to obtain ; 
while, at the same time, it admits of the use of some power- 
ful machinery, whereby a great deal of labor will be saved, 
and the process be greatly expedited. Mr. Bessemer merely 
mentions this in passing, without entering into details, as the 
patents he has obtained for improvements in this branch of 
the manufacture are not yet specified. He next points out 
the perfectly homogeneous character of cast-steel — its free- 
dom from sand cracks and flaws — and its greater cohesive 
force and elasticity, compared with the blister steel from 
which it is made, qualities which it derives solely from its 
fusion and formation into ingots — all of which properties 
malleable iron acquires in like manner, by its fusion and for- 
mation into ingots in the new process. Nor must it be for- 
gotten that no amount of rolling will give to blistered steel 
(although formed of rolled bars) the same homogeneous char- 
acter that cast-steel acquires, by a mere extension of the in- 
got to some ten or twelve times its original length. 

" One of the most important facts connected with the new 
system of manufacturing malleable iron is, that all the iron 
so produced will be of the quality known as charcoal iron, 
not that any charcoal is used in its manufacture, but because 
the whole of the processes following the smelting of it, are 
conducted entirely without contact with, or the use of any 
mineral fuel ; the iron resulting therefrom will, in consequence, 
be perfectly free from those injurious properties which that 
description of fuel never fails to impart to iron that is brought 



IROX. ] 



[ PI.ATK ?,. 




moN. ] 



[ Platk 4. 



4aS4sers a mTccf 




Fl'Q / . 




Fi^H 



Iron — Manufacture. 361 

under its influence. At the same time, this system of manu- 
facturing malleable iron offers extraordinary facility for mak- 
ing large shafts, cranks, and other heavy masses ; it will be 
obvious that any weight of metal that can be founded in or- 
dinary cast-iron, by the means at present at our disposal, may 
also be founded in molten malleable iron, and be wrought 
into the forms and shapes required, provided that we increase 
the size and power of our machinery to the extent necessary 
to deal with such large masses of metal. A few minutes' re- 
flection will show the great anomaly presented by the scale 
on which the processes of iron-making are at present carried 
on. The little furnaces originally used for smelting ore have, 
from time to time, increased in size, until they have assumed 
colossal proportions, and are made to operate on 200 or 300 
tons of material at a time, giving out 10 tons of fluid metal 
at a single run. The manufacturer has thus gone on increas- 
ing the size of his smelting furnaces, adapting to their use 
the blast apparatus of the requisite proportions, and has by 
this means lessened the cost of production, in every way in- 
suring a cheapness and uniformity of production, that could 
never have been secured by a multiplicity of small furnaces. 
While the manufacturer has shown himself fully alive to these 
advantages, he has still been under the necessity of leaving 
the succeeding operations to be carried out on a scale wholly 
at variance with the principles he has found so advantageous 
in the smelting department. It is true that, hitherto, no 
better method was known than the puddling process, in which 
from 4 cwt. to 5 cwt. of iron is all that can be operated upon 
at a time, and even this small quantity is divided into home- 
opathic doses of 70 lbs. or 80 lbs., each of which is moulded 
and fashioned by human labor, carefully watched and tended 
in the furnace, and removed therefrom, one at a time, to be 
carefully manipulated and squeezed into form. The vast ex- 
tent of the manufacture, and the gigantic scale on which the 
early stages of its progress is conducted, it is astonishing that 
no effort should have been made to raise the after processes 
somewhat nearer to a level commensurate with the preceding 
ones, and thus rescue the trade from the trammels which 
have so long surrounded it. Mr. Bessemer then adverts to 
another important feature of the new process, the produc- 
tion of what he calls semi-steel. At the stage of the pro- 



362 Five Black Arts. 

cess immediately following the boil, the whole of the crude 
iron has passed into the condition of cast-steel of ordinary 
quality ; by the continuation of the process the steel so pro- 
duced gradually loses its small remaining portion of carbon, and 
passes successively from hard to soft steel, and from softened 
steel to steely iron, and eventually to very soft iron ; hence, at 
a certain period of the process, any quality may be obtained ; 
there is one in particular, which, by way of distinction, he 
calls semi-steel, being in hardness about midway between or- 
dinary cast-steel and soft malleable iron. This metal possess- 
es the advantage of much greater tensile strength than soft 
iron ; it is also more elastic, and does not readily take a per- 
manent set, while it is much harder, and is not worn or in- 
dented so easily as soft iron. At the same time it is not so 
brittle or hard to work as ordinary cast-steel. These quali- 
ties render it eminently well adapted to purposes where light- 
ness and strength are especially required, or where there is 
much wear, as in the case of railway bars, which, from their 
softness and lamellar texture, soon become destroyed. The 
cost of semi-steel will be a fraction less than iron, because 
the loss of metal that takes place by oxidation in the convert- 
ing vessel is about 2J per cent, less than it is with iron, but 
as it is a little more difficult to roll, its cost per ton may 
fairly be considered to be the same as iron, but as its tensile 
strength is some thirty or forty per cent, greater than bar 
iron, it follows that for most purposes a much less weight of 
metal may be used, so that taken in that way the semi-steel 
will form a much cheaper metal than any we are at present 
acquainted with. 

"In conclusion, Mr. Bessemer observes that the facts he 
has discovered have not been elicited by mere laboratory ex- 
periments, but have been the result of operations on a scale 
nearly twice as great as is pursued in the largest iron-works, 
the experimental apparatus converting 7 cwt. in thirty min- 
utes, while the ordinary puddling furnace makes only 4 J cwt. 
in two hours, which is made into six separate balls ; while the 
ingots or blooms are smooth, even prisms ten inches square 
by thirty inches in length, weighing about as much as ten 
ordinary puddle balls." 



Iron — Machinery op Manufacture. 363 



MACHINERY OF THE MANUFACTURE. 

The mechanical operations connected with the manufacture 
of wrought iron consist of shingling, hammering, rolling, 
etc., to Avhich we may add the forging of "«ses," that is, the 
forging of those peculiar forms so extensively in demand for 
steam-engines, railway carriages, and other works, which has 
lately become a large and important branch of trade. 

In tracing the processes in the manufacture of wrought 
iron bars and plates, it will not be necessary to enlarge on 
those practices which have been superseded by more modern and 
improved machinery. Suffice it then to observe, that formerly 
the puddled balls were shingled or fashioned into oblong slabs 
or blooms by the blows of a heavy forge hammer ; during 
this operation, the scoriae and impurities which adhered to 
the balls were separated from the blooms by the force of im- 
pact, and then by a series of blows the iron was rendered 
malleable, dense, and compact. The blooms were then passed 
through a series of grooved iron rollers, which reduced them 
to the form of long, slender iron bars. These were cut up 
and piled regularly together or fagotted, and brought to a 
welding heat in the heating or balling furnace, when they were 
again passed several times through grooved rollers, and by 
this latter process were made into bars or plates ready for 
the shears. 

In order to arrive at a clear conception of the mechanical 
operations employed in the manufacture of iron, it will be nec- 
essary to describe more at length the processes as at pres- 
ent practiced, with the improved and powerful machinery now 
employed ; and as much depends upon the application of the 
motive power, the steam-engine claims the first notice. Un- 
til of late years, the vertical steam-engine was invariably 
used for giving motion to the forge hammer and rolling mill, 
which were placed on one side of the fly-wheel and the crank 
on the other ; but the high-pressure, non-condensing engine 
is found to be decidedly preferable, as the waste heat pass- 
ing off with the products of combustion from the puddling 
and heating furnaces, is quite sufficient to raise the steam 
for working the rolls and one of Brown's bloom queezers, 
as shown by fig. 5. 



364 Five Black Akts. 

In this arrangement the cylinder A (figs. 5, 6, 7) is placed 
horizontally, and is supplied with steam from boilers near the 
puddling furnaces. Tne piston and slides B, and connecting 
rod C, give motion to the crank shaft D, on which is fixed a 
heavy fly-wheel E. The puddling rolls F are driven direct 
from the end of the fly-wheel shaft, and the bloom squeezers H, 
by a train of spur wheels GG. Under the lower rolls of the 
squeezers a Jacob's ladder or elevator I is fixed, for raising the 
block which has been deprived of its impurities, and reduced to 
an oblong shape by passing between the rollers of the squeezer. 
The block, on leaving the rollers, is carried in front of one of 
the projecting divisions of the ladder and thrown on to the 
platform in front of the rolls ; the workman then seizes it 
■with a pair of tongs and forces it into the largest groove in 
the rolls ; it is then passed in succession through the other 
grooves till it attains the required form of the bar. 

The drawings of Brown's bloom squeezers, figs. 8, 9, and 
10, will sufficiently explain how the heated ball of puddled 
iron, K, thrown on the top, is gradually compressed between 
the revolving rollers as it descends and at last emerges at 
the bottom, where it is thrown on to the movable " Jacob's 
ladder," by which it is elevated to the rolls, as already de- 
scribed. This machine effects a considerable saving of time ; 
will do the work of 12 or 1-1 furnaces, and may be kept 
constantly going as a feeder to one or two pairs of rolls. 
There are two distinct .forms of this machine, one as shown 
in fig. 8, where the bloom receives only two compressions ; 
and the other, which is much more effective, where it is 
squeezed four times before it leaves the rolls and falls upon 
the Jacob's ladder, as exhibited in figs. 9 and 10. 

There are two other machines for preparing the blooms 
by compression. One is a table firmly imbedded in masonry, 
as shown at AA, in fig. 11, with a ledge rising up from it to 
a height of about two feet, so as to form an open box. Within 
this is a revolving box C, of a similar character, much smaller 
than the last and placed eccentrically in regard to it. The 
ball or bloom D is placed between the innermost revolving 
box C and the outer case AA, w^here the space between them 
is greatest, and is carried round till it emerges at E, com- 
pressed and fit for the rolls. 

Another instrument, fig. 12, used for the same purpose, acts 



IRON.] 



[ Platb 6. 







[IliiMi i|l[||[ii|iilly^^\\''m.'^/;^pP==\\\\A, ///'/, ^/ 



J 



W'^cpj " ciii 



^A 



J ill II 



IRON. ] 



[Plate 6. 




FisJL 




Fiff 13, 



Irox — Machinery of Manufacture. 365 

as a pair of pliers, and squeezes the iron between two flat 
blades AA. This machine is called the Alligator, and is 
probably more effective than the horizontal machine, but it 
requires an attendant to keep the bloom rolling about under 
the jaws AA, and is, in other respects, inferior to Brown's 
patent squeezer. 

We have stated that the horizontal, non-condensing steam- 
engine, from its compact form and convenience of handling, 
is admirably adapted for giving motion to the machinery of 
iron-works. For this object, it is superior to the beam-engine, 
as its speed can be regulated with the greatest nicety, by 
opening or shutting the valve, so as to suit all the require- 
ments of the manufacture, under the varied conditions of the 
pressure of the steam, and the power required for rolling 
heavy plates and bars, or those of a lighter description. It 
is also much cheaper in its original cost, and all its parts 
being fixed upon a large bed-plate, require a comparatively 
small amount of masonry to render it solid and secure. 

In regard to the manufacture of the rollers for the puddling, 
boiler-plate, and merchant train, the greatest care must be 
observed in the selection of the iron and the mode of casting. 
In Staffordshire there are roller-makers, but in general the 
manufacturer casts his own, and as much depends upon the 
metal, the strongest qualities are carefully selected and mixed 
with Welsh No. 1 or No. 2, and Staffordshire No. 2. This 
latter description of iron, when duly prepared, exhibits great 
tenacity, and is well adapted, either in the first or second 
melting, for such a purpose. In casting, the moulds are pre- 
pared in loam, and when dry are sunk vertically into the pit 
to a depth of about five feet below the floor. The moulding 
box is surrounded by sand firmly consolidated by beaters, and 
a second mould or head is placed above it, which receives an 
additional quantity of iron to supply the space left by shrink- 
ing, and keep the roll under pressure until it solidifies, and 
thus secures a great uniformity and density in the roller. The 
metal is run into the mould direct from the air furnace by chan- 
nels cut in the sand, and immediately the mould is filled, the 
■workman agitates the metal with a rod, in order to consolidate 
the mass and get rid of any air or gas which may be confined 
in the metal. This stirring with iron rods is continued till the 
metal cools to a semi-fluid state, when it is covered up and al- 



S66 Five Black Arts. 

lowed slowly to cool and crystallize. This slow rate of cooling is 
necessary to favor a uniform degree of contraction, as the exte- 
rior closes up like a series of hoops round the core of the cast- 
ing, which is always the most porous and the last to cool. In 
every casting of this kind it is essential to avoid unequal con- 
traction, and this cannot be accomplished unless time is given 
for the arrangement of the particles by a slow process of crys- 
tallization. Rollers for boiler-plates and thin sheet iron are 
difficult to cast sound on account of their large size. They are 
subjected to very great strain, and require to be cast from the 
most tenacious metals. The bearings or neck should be en- 
larged, or turned to the shape shown 



^ 



"I", at AA, and the cylindrical part B 
fj-P should be slightly concave, because, 



when the slab is first passed through 
the rollers, it comes in contact with a small portion only of the 
revolving surface. The central parts of the roller thus be- 
come highly heated, whilst their extremities are perfectly cool ; 
the consequence is, that the expansion of the roller is great- 
est in the middle, and unless this be provided for by a con- 
cavity in the barrel, the plates become buckled, that is, both 
warped and uneven in thickness, and consequently, imperfect 
and unfit for the purposes of boiler making. Bar rolls are 
generally cast in chill, and great care is required to prevent 
the chill penetrating too deep so as to injure the tenacity of 
the metal and render it brittle. 

There are difierent kinds of rolling mills used in the iron 
manufacture, and they vary considerably in their dimensions 
according to the work they have to perform. The first, through 
which the puddled iron is passed, we have already described 
as puddling rolls. There are others for roughing down which 
vary from 4 to 5 feet long, and are about 18 inches diameter ; 
those for merchant bars, about 2 feet 6 inches to 3 feet long 
and 18 inches in diameter, are in constant use. The boiler-plate 
and black sheet-iron rolls are generally of large dimensions ; 
some of them for large plates are upward of 6 feet long and 
18 to 21 inches in diameter; these require a powerful engine 
and the momentum of a large fly-wheel to carry the plate 
through the rollers, and not unfrequently when thin wide 
plates have to be rolled, the two combined prove unequal to 
the task, and the result is, the plates cool and stick fast in the 



Iron — Machinery of Manufacture. 367 

middle. The greatest care is necessary in rolling plates of 
this kind, as any neglect of the speed of the engine or the 
setting of the rolls results in the breakage of the latter, or 
bringing the former to a complete stand. 

The speed of the different kinc's of rolling mills varies ac- 
cording to the work they have to perform. Those for mer- 
chant bars make from 60 to 70 revolutions a minute, whilst 
those of large size for boiler-plates are reduced to 28 or 
30. Others, such as the finishing and guide rollers, run 
at from 120 to 400 revolutions a minute. In Stafford 
shire, where some of the finer kinds of iron are prepared for 
the manufacture of wire, the rollers are generally made of 
cast-steel, and run at a high velocity ; such is the ductility of 
this description of iron, that in passing through a succession of 
rollers, it will have elongated to 10 or 15 times its original 
length, and when completely finished, will have assumed the 
form of a strong wire f to 5 of an inch in diameter, and 40 
to 50 feet in length. 

A high temperature is an indispensable condition of success 
in rolling. The experience of the workman enables him to 
judge, from the appearance of the furnace, when the pile is 
at a welding heat, so that when compressed in the rolls the 
particles will unite. Sometimes it is necessary to give a fine 
polish or skin to the iron as it leaves the rolls, but this can only 
be done when the iron cools down to a dark-red color, and 
by the practiced eye of an intelligent workman. 

The above operations would still be incomplete unless the 
ironmaster had means of cutting the bars and plates to any 
required size or shape. The machinery for this purpose has 
of late been brought to a high degree of perfection, both in 
regard to power and precision. 

The circular saw has been successfully applied for squaring 
and cutting the larger descriptions of bars, and does its work, 
particularly in railway bars, with almost mathematical pre- 
cision. 'This machine consists of a cast-iron frame or bed 
AA, fig. 13, bolted down to a solid foundation, on the ends 
of which slide two frames BB to support the bar to be cut. 
The two circular saws or cutters CC are driven by straps pass- 
ing over the pulleys DE, and rotate at the rate of 800 to 
1000 revolutions per minute. The machine is set in motion 
by transferring the straps from the loose pulley D to the fast 



368 Five Black Arts. 

pulley E, and as soon as the required speed is attained, the 
frame BB is carried forward, and the bar FF along with it, 
by a lever G or eccentric motion, till the bar is cut through. 
The rate of cutting or pressure upon the saws may be regu- 
lated either by hand or weight; care must, however, be taken 
not to allow the saws to become too hot, and this is provided 
against by running them in a trough of water. By this pro- 
cess it is evident that the bar must always be cut square at 
the ends and correctly to the same length. 

A great variety of shears are used for cutting iron, some 
driven by cams or eccentrics, and some by connecting-rods 
and a crank on the revolving shaft. In large iron-works it 
is necessary to have two or three kinds, some for cutting up 
scrap iron and bars for piling, and others for boiler-plates. 
Of the first we may notice two, one shown in fig. 14, cuts on 
both sides at AA, and is driven by a crank and connecting- 
rod B, This machine is chiefly used for cutting puddled bars 
from the puddling rolls, or any work required for shingling. 
The next machine, fig. 15, receives motion in the same man- 
ner, and also cuts on both sides, the cutters being fixed on 
the lever and moving with it. This is used for the same pur- 
pose as the last, and likewise for cutting scrap iron. These 
machines are extensively used in the manufacture of iron, 
and before the introduction of the plate shears, they were 
used, with some modifications, to cut boiler-plates, but the 
work was very imperfectly executed. 

The demand for plates of large dimensions and greatly in- 
creased weight, such as those for the front and tube plates of 
locomotive and marine boilers, and those for tubular and 
plate bridges, created great difficulties, not only in piling, 
heating, and rolling, but also in cutting the plates accurately 
to the required size. To meet these demands, and more 
particularly for the manufacture of the large plates employed 
in the cellular top of the Britannia and Conway tubular 
bridges, Messrs. G. B. Thorneycroft and Co. constructed a 
large shearing machine which cut upward of 10 feet at one 
stroke. These shears have now come into general use, and 
are of great importance, on account of the accuracy with 
■which they cut plates of large dimensions, square and even. 
Figs. 16 and 17 represent this machine; aa a is the stand- 
ard and table on which the plate is fixed. This table slides 



IRON. ] 



[ Plate 7. 





Fiy IS 



IRON. ] 



[ Pl.ATK 8. 




Iron — Machinery of Manufacture. 369 

forward at right angles to the shears or cutters AAA* A*. 
The top cutter descending bj the action of three eccentrics 
ecc, which press upon the top of the frame B as it revolves, 
and force it down, and by one stroke, the knife AA cuts through 
the whole length of the plate, perfectly clean and straight. 
The plate is then reversed, the newly cut edge being held 
against the slopes, and the sliding frame again moved forward 
to the required width of the plate, when another stroke cuts 
the other side as before. The rapidity with which the plates 
are cut is another advantage of this machine, as great as the 
precision of its cut, and when the immense quantity of plates 
daily produced at Messrs. Thorneycroft and Co.'s works are 
considered, its importance becomes evident. 

At the Paris Universal Exhibition (1855), a plate-cutting 
machine was exhibited, from the United States, which ap- 
pears to eifect the same operation as Messrs. Thorneycroft 
and Co.'s. It consists of a strong cast-iron frame, nine or 
ten feet wide, having inserted along its face a steel plate, on 
which the iron to be cut rests and is held firmly by a faller, 
which descends on the upper side of the plate. On the same 
side of the frame a revolving steel cutter, about nine inches 
in diameter, traverses the whole length of the frame, and in 
its passage cuts the plate, by compression, in a perfectly 
straight line, corresponding with the steel edge below. Cut- 
ting and shaving plates by a revolving disc has been long in 
use, but the traversing motion in this machine is certainly 
new, and its application very creditable to the ingenuity of 
the inventor. 

Having thus traced the processes for the conversion of crude 
into malleable iron, and the machinery employed, it only re- 
mains to give a general summary of the whole. As regards 
the arrangement of large iron-works, the general principle 
should be for the machinery to be classed and fixed in the 
order of the different processes, so that the products of one 
machine should pass at once to the next, and, in fact, the 
crude iron should be received at one end, and having passed 
through all the processes, delivered at the other in the man- 
ufactured state. 

The crude iron from the smelting furnace is either refined 
and puddled, or subjected to the boiling process, to get rid of 
the combined carbon and render the iron malleable ; it is then 
24 



370 Five Black Arts. 

shingled bj the forge hammer, by the " alligator," bv Brown's 
squeezer, or by the other machines which have been invented 
for this purpose. It is then at once passed through the pud- 
dling rolls, where it is reduced to the form of a flat bar, and 
is then cut into convenient lengths by the shears. These 
pieces are again piled or faggoted together into convenient 
heaps and re-heated in the furnace. As soon as a faggot 
thus prepared has been heated to the welding temperature, 
it is passed through the roughing rolls to reduce it to the 
form of a bar, and then through the finishing rolls, where the 
required form and size is given to it, either round or square 
bars, etc. These are straightened and cut to the required 
sizes, and are then ready for delivery. In most large works 
all these operations are carried on simultaneously with the 
smelting process, and in some with extensive mining opera- 
tions for procuring the coal, ore, and limestone required to 
supply a production of several thousand tons of manufactured 
iron per month. 

THE FORGE. 

The forging of iron has entered, of late years, so largely 
into the constructive arts, that the manufactures, however 
perfect in the rolling-mill, would be imperfect indeed without 
the forge. To the discussion of this part of the subject there 
are many inducements, and we cannot but wonder at the 
many devices, and the numerous contrivances which present 
themselves for the attainment of the operations of the forge. 
In effecting these objects, Mr. Nasmyth's steam-hammer is 
evidently the most effective, and to that instrument we are in- 
debted for the formation and welding of iron upon a scale 
previously unknown to the workers in that metal. 

Mr. Nasmyth took out his patent for this invention in 1833 ; 
and from that time up to the present, it has maintained its 
ground against every innovation, and has performed an im- 
portant duty in almost every well-regulated work in Europe. 
It consists of an inverted cylinder D, figs. 18. and 19, 
through which the piston-rod E passes, attached to the ham- 
mer-blade F by means of bars and cross -key h. which press 
upon an elastic packing, to soften the blow of the hammer, 
■which in heavy forgings and heavy blows, operates severely 



Iron— The Forge. 371 

upon the piston-rod. The hammer-block FF is guided in its 
vertical descent by two planed guides or projections, extend- 
ing the length of the side-standards AA, between which the 
hammer-block slides. The attendant gives motion to the ham- 
mer by admitting steam from the boiler to act upon the under 
side of the piston, by moving the regulator I by the handle 
d. The length of stroke is regulated by increasing or dimin- 
ishing the distance between the cam N and the valve lever 
0, by turning the screws P and U by the bevil wheels q q. 
The lever o operates by the cam N coming in contact with 
the roller o. As soon as this contact takes place, the further 
admission of steam is not only arrested, but its escape is at 
the same time effected, and the hammer, left unsupported, 
descends by its gravity upon the work on the anvil with an 
energy due to the height of the fall. From this description, 
it will be seen that the movement of the roller o causes the 
shoulder of the rod P to get under the point of the trigger catch 
U ; the valve is by these means kept closed till the whole force 
of the blow is struck. The instant the operation is effected, 
the concussion of the hammer causes the latch X to knock off 
the point of the trigger from the shoulder on the valve-rod P, 
by means of the bent lever s v. and the instant this is accom- 
plished, the valve is re-opened to admit the steam below the 
piston, by the pressure of steam on the upper side of the small 
piston in the cylinder M, forcing down the valve rod, which, in 
this respect, is the active agent for opening the valve. 

To arrest the motion of the hammer, it is only necessary 
to shut the steam-valve ; during the process of forging, it is, 
however, desirable to give time between the blows, to enable 
the workman to turn and shift his work on the anvil ; and to 
effect this reduced motion, the trigger U is held back from the 
shoulder of the valve-rod P, by the handle y, which at the 
same instant opens the valve in the case J, and thus the ac- 
tion of the steam in the cylinder D retards the downward 
motion of the hammer. The result of these changes is an 
easy descent of the hammer, which vibrates up and down 
without touching the anvil, but ready for blows of any se- 
verity the instant the trigger is elevated above the shoulder of 
the valve lever P. From this description, it will appear evi- 
dent that Mr. Nasmyth's invention is one of the most important 
that has occurred in the art of forging iron. It has given an 



372 



Five Black Arts. 



[WWWIWfsAIW 




impetus to the manufacture, and aflFords facilities for the 
welding of large blocks of malleable iron that could not be 
accomplished by the tilt and helve hammers formerly in use; 
and we have only to instance the forging of the stern-posts 
and cutwaters of iron ships ; the paddle-wheel and screw- 
shafts of our ocean steamers, some of them weighing upward 
of 20 tons, to appreciate the value as well as the intensity 
of action of the steam-hammer. 

In addition to the machinery of the forge, the V anvil, 
the natural offspring of the steam-hammer, came into exist- 
ence from this same fertile source. It 
is chiefly employed for forging round 
bars and shafts, and may be thus de- 
scribed, A being a section of the round 
bar or shaft to be forged, B the anvil- 
block, and C the hammer. From this, 
it is obvious that, in place of the old 
plan, where the work is forged upon 
flat surfaces, as shown in the annexed 
figure, and where the blows are diverg- 
ing, the effect of the V anvil is a con- 
verging action, thus consolidating the mass, and enabling the 
forger to retain his work directly under the 
center of the hammer. This is the more strik- 
ingly apparent, as the blows of the hammer 
upon a round shaft have the effect of causing the 
mass to assume the elliptical form, forcing out 
the sides as at AA in every successive blow, 
and this again, when turned, produces a sponc 
porous center, as shown in D. This proces 
is, however, more clearly exemplified in Ry- 
der's forging machines, where all the anvils are of the Y form, 
for the forging of spindles, round bars, and bolts. 

The next important discovery in the art of forging, 
is that of Mr. Ryder's machine, patented some 
years since, for forging small articles, which, on ac- 
count of the rapidity and precision of its operations, 
demands a notice in passing. It consisted essentially of a 
series of small anvils about three inches square, supported 
from below by large screws passing through the frame of the 
machine. This screw was employed in order that the dis- 




^^'imf\\l^4j 




IRON. ] 



[ Pl.ATK 9. 




IRON. ] 



[ Platk iO. 




Iron— The Forge. 373 

tance between the hammer and anvil might be accurately ad- 
justed. Between the screw and the anvil, a stuffing of cork 
was introduced to deaden the effect of the blow. The ham- 
mers were arranged over the anvils, and slid up and down in 
the frame of the machine. The blow was effected by the 
revolution of an eccentric, acting by means of a cradle on 
the hammer-head, the hammer, however, being lifted again 
by a strong spiral spring. At the side of the machine was 
a cutter or shears worked by a long lever ; with this the arti- 
cles were cut to the required length as they were finished. 

In Mr. Ryder's machine 700 strokes a minute was the 
maximum ; but Messrs. Piatt Brochers, of Oldham, by in- 
creasing the strength of the spring, run as high as 1100. 
A pair of knife edges, worked by the machine itself, has 
also been substituted for the hand-shears. These perform 
the work more rapidly and accurately than before, and 
leave the workman more at liberty. Dies are let into the 
surfaces of the hammers and anvils, which shape the iron as 
required. 

The rapidity with which this machine executes all kinds of 
intricate work is truly remarkable ; for instance, a bar about 
2| X 2J inches, will be reduced to li x 1^ inches, and cut 
off in a minute. Set-screws, bolts, spindles, and all kinds of 
small work are produced at the same rate. Its precision is 
very effective ; the articles are almost as true as if turned in 
a lathe, and very accurate as to size and weight. Other 
machines, called " lifts," have been, and continue to be, used 
for forging a variety of forms and "ztses;" but as these 
partake more or less of the principle employed in Ryder's 
machine, it will not be necessary to furnish further examples. 

In conclusion, we may observe that the facilities afforded 
by the present age for the forging of malleable iron, are with- 
out a parallel in the history of that material. Every known 
resource has been adopted, and every contrivance and device 
has been employed to meet the demands of a large and an in- 
tricate trade ; and looking at the present resources of the 
country, and the admirable mechanical contrivances for the 
conversion of crude iron into the malleable state, it assuredly 
is not unreasonable to look forward to still greater improve- 
ments in the manipulations of the forge. 



874 



Five Black Arts. 



THE STRENGTH AND OTHER PROPERTIES OF IRON. 

In this section we have to consider the tensile and trans- 
verse strengths and powers of resisting compression of cast 
and malleable iron as determined by direct experiment upon 
specimens of the material ; and also to examine whether, 
as has been alleged, the hot-blast process injures the tenacity 
of the metal. 

Cast Iron. — The following tables give the results of ex- 
periments undertaken by Mr. Hodgkinson and Mr. Fairbairn at 
the request of the British Association, to determine the tensile 
and transverse strengths of cast-iron derived from the hot and 
cold blast. The castings for ascertaining the tensile strain 
were made very strong at the ends, with eyes for the bolts 
to which the shackles were attached ; the middle part, where 
it was intended that the specimen should break, was cast of a 
cruciform -f- transverse section. The four largest castings 
were broken by the chain-testing machine belonging to the 
corporation of Liverpool, the others by Mr. Fairbairn's lever. 

Table I. — Results of the Experiments on the tensile strength of Cast-iron. 



Description ot Iron. 



Number 
of Experi- 
ments. 



Mean strength per square 
inch of section. 



Carrou iron, No. 2, hot-blast 

" " cold-blast 

" No. 3, hot-blast 

" " cold-blast 

Devon (Scotland) iron, No. 3, hot-blasi 
BufFery iron, No. 1, hot-blast 

" " cold-blast 

Coed Talon (North Wales) iron, No. 2. 

hot-blast 

Do. do. cold-blast 



13.505 
16,683 
17,755 
14,200 
21,907 
13,434 
17,466 

16.676 

18,855 



cwts. 
Oi 
9" 

\^ 

7 
15i 


16 



7 9 

8 8 



From the same series of experiments we select the follow- 
ing tables, giving the results obtained in regard to the resist- 
ance opposed to compression by cast-iron. The specimens 
employed were cylinders and prisms of various dimensions, 
and having their faces turned accurately parallel to each other 
and perpendicular to the axis of the specimen. They were 
crushed by a lever between parallel steel discs. 



Iron — Strength and other Properties. 375 

Table II. — Weights required to crush cylinders, etc., of Carron Iron, A'o. 2, 
Ilot-Blasi. 



Diameter of Cylinder i 
of an inch. 



Prism base -50 inch square . 
Prism base 1-00 x '^^ 



Number 
of Experi- 
ments. 


Menn 
Crushing 
Weight. 


3 
4 
5 
1 
3 
2 


lbs- 

6,426 
14,542 
22,110 
35,888 
25,104 
26,276 



Mean Crushing 
Weight per 
square inch 



130.909 
131.665 
12i;605 
111,560 
100,416 
101,062 



General mean per 
square inch. 



121,685 lbs. 
= 54 tons 
6 J- cwt. 

100,738 lbs. 

= 44 tons 
19.i cwt. 



Table III. — Weights required to crush ci/linders, etc., of Carron Iron, No. 2, 
Cold-Blast. 



riameter of C3'linder in 
parts of an inch. 



Equilateral triangle- 



Squares — side ^ inch 
Rectangles — base 1-00 

X •243 

Cylinders -45 inch di 
ameter, & -75 inch hial 



Number of 
Experiments 



Mean 
Crushing 
Weight. 



6,088 
14,190 
24,290 

32,398 
24,538 

26,237 

15,369 



Mean Crush 

ing iVeiiiht 

pei square 

inch. 



lbs. 
124,023 
128.478 
123,708 

99,769 
98,152 



96,634 



General Mean per 
square inch. 



125,403 lbs. 
= 55 tons 
19A cwt. 



100,631 lbs. 
= 44 tons 
18.V cwt. 



Table IV. — Results of Uxperiments to ascertain the forces necessary to crush short 
cylinders, etc., of Cast Iron. 



Description of Iron. 


Number 
of Experi- 
ments. 


Mean Crushing Weight per 
square inch. 






lbs. 


tons. cwt. 


Devon (Scotch) iron. No. 3 hot-blast . 


2 


145,435 


64 18J 


Buffery iron. No. 1, hot-bast 


4 


86,397 


38 llj 


" " cold-blast 


4 


93.385 


41 13} 


Coed Talon, No. 2, hot-blast 


4 


82,734 


36 18J 


cold-blast 


4 


81,770 


36 10 


Carron iron. No. 2, hot-blast 


2 


108,540 


48 9 


" " cold-blast 


3 


10i).375 


47 9| 


Carron iron, No. 3. hot-blast 


3 


133,440 


59 Hi 


" " cold-blast 


4 


115,442 


51 10| 



The specimens of Carron iron in table IV. were prisms, 
whose base was i i^ i = i inch, and whose height varied 



876 



Five Black Arts. 



from ^ inch to 1 inch. The other specimens were cylinders, 
whoso diameter was about J inch, and height varied from J 
inch to 2 inches. 

From the above experiments, Mr. Hodgkinson concludes 
that " where the length is not more than about three times 
the diameter, the strength for a given base is pretty nearly 
the same." Fracture took place either by wedges sliding 
oif, or by the top and bottom forming pyramids, and forcing 
out the sides ; and the angle of the wedge is nearly constant, 
a mean of 21 cylinders being 55° 32'. 

From the same series of experiments, we give the results 
obtained by Mr. Fairbairn, in regard to the effects of time 
and temperature. The bars employed were cast to be 1 inch 
square, and 4 feet 6 inches long, and were loaded with per- 
manent weights as under ; the deflections being taken at va- 
rious intervals during a period of fifteen months. Coed-talon 
hot and cold-blast iron was employed. 



Table V. — The effects of Time on loaded bars of Hot and Cold-blast Iron in their 
resistance to a transverse strain. 



Permanent load in lbs. 


Increase of deflection of cold- 
blast bars. 


Increase of deflection of 
hot-blast bars. 


280 

392 
449 


•033 
•046 
•140 
•047 


•043 
•077 
.088 


Mean. 


.066 


•069 



It has been assumed by most writers on the strength of 
materials, that the elasticity of cast-iron remained perfect to 
the extent of one-third the weight that would break it. This 
is, however, a mere assumption, as it has been found that the 
elasticity of cast-iron is injured with less than one-half that 
weight, and the question to be solved in the above experiments 
was, to what extent the material could be loaded without en- 
dangering its security; or how long it would continue to sup- 
port weights, varying from one-half to one-tenth of the load 
that would produce fracture. These experiments were con- 
tinued from six to seven years, and the results obtained were, 



Iron — Strength and other Properties. 



377 



that the bars which were loaded to within j\ of their breaking 
weight, would have continued to have borne the load, in the 
absence of any disturbing cause, ad infinitum ; but the ef- 
fect of change, either of the same or a lighter load led ulti- 
mately to fracture. 

From these facts it is deduced, that so long as the mole- 
cules of the material are under strain (however severe that 
strain may be), they will arrange and accomodate themselves 
to the pressure, but with the slightest disturbance, whether 
produced from vibration or the increase or diminution of load, 
it becomes, under these influences, only a question of time 
when rupture ensues. 

In the following experiments on the relative strengths of 
coed-talon hot and cold-blast iron to resist transverse strain 
at different temperatures, the results are reduced to those of 
bars 2 feet 3 inches between supports, and one inch square, 
as follows: 



Table YI. 



Tempe- 
rature, 
Fahr. 


Specific 


Modulus of 


Breaking 


Ultimate 


Gravity. 


Elasticity. 


■weight. 


deflection. 


a-° 


6 955 


12799050 


874 


.4538 


32» 


6955 


14327450 


919.6 


.402 


113° 


6955 


14168000 


812.9 


.836 


20° 


6968 


14902900 


811.69 


.4002 


32° 


6 968 


14003300 


919.7 


.429 


84-' 


6 968 


14500000 


877.5 


.421 


192° 




14398600 


743.1 


.301 


212° 






924.5 




coo° 






1033.0 




Red by 






663.3 




daylight. 
Kedindark. 






7231 




iy6° 




13046200 


875.7 


.389 


187° 




11012500 


638.8 


.3.59 


188o 




13869500 


823 6 


.363 


212° 






818 4 




600° 






875 8 




Red m dark. 






829.7 





Power 
of re- 
sisting 
impact. 



Cold Blast, No. 2 
Hot Blast, No. 2 



Cold Blast, No. 2 .... 
No. 3 ... . 



No. 2 .... 
Hot Blast, No. 2 



No. 3 .... 
No. 2 .'.". 



397.7 
382.4 
273.1 



From the above it will be seen " that a considerable fail- 
ure of the strength took place after heating the No. 2 iron 
from 26° to 190°. At 212°, we have in the No. 3 a much 
greater weight sustained than by No. 2 at 190° ; and at 600° 
there appears, in both hot and cold-bast, the anomaly of in- 
creased strength as the temperature is increased." * The 



* This probably arises from the greater ductility of the bars at an increased 
temperature. 



378 



Five Black Arts. 



above results are, with one exception, in favor of the cold- 
blast, as far as strength is concerned ; and in favor of the hot- 
blast, with one exception, as regards power of resisting im- 
pact. 

With regard to the comparative strengths of hot and cold- 
blast iron, the following extracts from Mr. Hodgkinson's re- 
port, read before the British Association, give the general 
results of his experiments : 

Table Yll.—Carron Iron, No. 2. 



Tensile strength in lbs. per inch square 

Compressive do. in lbs. per inch, from 
castings torn asunder 

Do. from prisms of \a.i ious forms 

Do. from cylinders 

Transverse strength from all the experi- 
ments 

Power to resist impact 

Transverse strength of bars 1 inch square 
in lbs • • 

Ultimate deflection of do. in inches 

Modulus of elasticity in lbs. per square 
inch 

Specific gravity 



cold-blast. Hot-blast. ^^^^^ 



16683 (2) 

106375 (2) 
100631 (2) 
126403 (13j 



476 (3) 
1 313 (3) 



7270500 (2) 
7-066 



13505 (3) 

108540 (2) 
100738 (2) 
121685 (13) 

(13) 
(9) 

463 (3) 
1 337 (3) 



100^: 
1000: 
1000: 

1000: 
1000: 

1000: 
1000: 

ICOO: 
1000: 



1020 
JOOl 



991 
lv05 



Table YIU.— Devon Iron, No. 3. 



Cold-blast by 10 



Tensile strength 

Compressive do 

Transverse do. from the experiments gen- 
erally 

Power to resist impact 

Transverse strength of bars 1 inch square 

Ultimate deflection do 

Modulus of elasticity do 

Specific gravity 



(5) 

(4) 

448 (2) 

7y(2) 

;700 (2) 

295 (4) 



21907 (1) 
145435 (4) 

(5) 

(4) 

537 (2) 

1 09 (2) 

22473650 (2) 

7-229 (2) 



ItOO 
1000 
]000 
1000 
1000 
1000 



1417 
2786 
1199 



Table lX.—Buffenj Iron, No. 1. 



Tensile strength 

Compressive do 

Transverse do 

Power to resist impact 

Transverse strength of bars 

one inch squai-e 

Ultimate deflection dc 

Modulus of elasticity do. . . 
Specific gravity 



17466 


(1) 


93366 


(4) 




(5) 




(^) 


463 (3) 


1-55 


(3) 


581200 


(2) 


7-079 





13434 


(1) 


86397 


(4) 




(5) 




(2) 


436 


(3) 


1.64 


(3) 


30500 


(2) 


6-998 





1000 : 769 

1000 : 925 

1000 : 931 

1000 : 963 

1000 : 942 

1000 : 1058 

1000 : 893 

1000 : 989 



Iron — Strength and other Properties. 379 





Table X.-Coed 


Talon Iron, 


No. 2. 






Tensile, strength 
Compressive do. 




18855 (2) 
81770 (4) 
G-955 (4) 


16fi76 (2) 
82739 (4) 
6-968 (3) 


1000 
1000 
1000 


884 




1012 


Specific gravity 


1002 


Table Xl.—Carro7i Iron, No. 3. 


Tensile strength 
Coufjpressive do 




14200 (2) 
115442 (4) 
7-135 


17755 (2) 

133440 (3) 

7-056 (1) 


1000 
1000 
1000 


: 1250 




: 1156 


Specific gravity 


: 989 



" Beginning with No. 1 iron, of which we have a specimen 
from the Buffery Iron- Works, a few miles from Birmingham, 
we find the cold-blast iron somewhat surpassing the hot-blast 
in all the following particulars : direct tensile strength, com- 
pressive strength, transverse strength, power to resist impact, 
modulus of elasticity or stiffness, specific gravity ; whilst the 
only numerical advantage possessed by the hot-blast iron is, 
that it bends a little more than the cold-blast before it breaks. 

" In the irons of the quality No. 2, the case seems in some 
degree different ; in these the advantages of the rival kinds 
seem to be more nearly balanced. They are still, however, 
rather in favor of the cold-blast. 

" So far as my experiments have proceeded, the irons of 
No. 1 have been deteriorated by the hot-blast; those of No. 
2 appear also to have been slightly injured by it, while the irons 
of No. 3 seem to have benefited by its mollifying powers. 
The Carron iron No. 3 hot-blast, resists both tension and 
compression with considerably more energy than that made 
with the cold-blast ; and the No. 3 hot-blast iron from the 
Devon works, in Scotland, is one of the strongest cast-irons 
I have seen, whilst that made by the cold-blast is compara- 
tively weak, though its specific gravity is very high, and 
higher than in the hot. The extreme hardness of the cold- 
blast Devon iron above prevented many experiments that would 
otherwise have been made upon it, no tools being hard enough 
to form the specimens. The difference of strength in the 
Devon irons is peculiarly striking. 

" From the evidence here brought forward, it is rendered 



380 



Five Black Arts. 



exceedingly probable that the introduction of the heated blast 
in the manufacture of cast-iron has injured the softer irons, 
whilst it has frequently mollified and improved those of a 
harder nature, and, considering the small deterioration that 
the irons of quality No. 2 have sustained, and the apparent 
benefit to those of No. 3, together with the great saving 
eflected by the heated blast, there seems good reason for the 
process becoming as general as it has done." 

The following table gives a general summary of the re- 
sults of Mr. Fairbairn's experiments on the strength of iron 
after successive meltings. The iron used was Eglinton No. 3 
hot-blast, and was melted eighteen times, three bars being 
cast at each melting. These bars, which were about 1 inch 
square and 5 feet long, were placed upon supports 4 feet 6 
apart, and broken by a transverse strain. Cubes, from the 
same irons, exactly 1 inch square, were then crushed between 
parallel steel bars, by a large wrought-iron lever. 

In the following Table XII., the results on transverse strain 
are reduced to those on bars exactly 1 inch square and 4 feet 6 
inches between supports : 



No. of 
melting. 


Specific 
gravity. 


Mean breaking 
weight in lbs. 


VIean ultimate 

deflection in 

inches. 


Power to resist 
impact. 


Mean crushing 
weight of inch 
cubes in tons. 


1 


6.966 


490.0 


1.440 


705.6 


1 


2 


6.970 


441.9 


1.446 


630.9 






3 


6.886 


401.6 


1.486 


596.7 






4 


6.938 


413.4 


1.260 


520.8 




41.9 


5 


fi.842 


431.6 


1.503 


648.6 




(i 


6.771 


438.7 


1.320 


579.0 






7 


6.879 


449.1 


1.440 


646.7 






8 


7.025 


491.3 


1.753 


861.2 


J 


9 


7.102 


546.5 


1.620 


S85.3 


1 


10 


7.108 


566.9 


1.626 


921.7 


1 


n 


7.113 


651.9 


1.636 


1066.5 


U4.3 


12 


7.160 


692.1 


1.666 


1153.0 


1 


13 


7.134 


634.8 


1.646 


1044.9 


J 


14 


7.530 


603.4 


1.513 


912.9 


1 


. 15 


7.248 


371.1 


0.643 


238.6 


1 


16 


7.330 


351.3 


0.566 


198.5 


^82.8 


17 


lost. 








1 


18 


7.385 


312.7 


0.476 


148.8 


J 



In the above results it will be observed that the maximum 
of strength, elasticity, etc., is only arrived at after the metal 



Iron — Strength and other Properties. 381 



has undergone twelve successive meltings. It is probable 
that other metals and their alloys may follow the same law, 
but that is a question that has yet to be solved, probably by 
a series of experiments requiring a considerable amount of 
time and labor to accomplish, but which we may venture to 
hope will be shortly forthcoming from the same author. 

In the resistance of the different meltings from the same 
iron, to a force tending to crush them, we have the following 
results : 

Table XIII. 





Re'istance to 




Number of 


compreasion per 


Remarks. 


meltings. 


square inch, iu 




tons. 




1 


44.0 




2 


43.6 




3 


41.1 




4 


40.7 




5 


41.1 




6 


41.1 




7 


40.9 




8 


41.1 




9 


55.1 




10 


57.7 




Hi 


Mean 69.8 


[In this experiment the cube did not bed prop- 


12 


73.1 


-I eiiy on the steel plates, otherwise it would have 


13 


66.0 


[ resisted a much greater force. 


14 


95.9 




15 


76.7 




16 


70.5 




18 


88.0 





Nearly the whole of the specimens were fractured by 
wedges which split or slid off diagonally at an angle of 52° 
to 58°. 

Malleable Iron. — The greatly extended application of 
wrought-iron to every variety of construction renders an in- 
vestigation of its properties peculiarly interesting. It is now 
employed more extensively than cast-iron ; and, on account 
of its ductility and strength, nearly two-thirds of the weight 
of material may in many cases be saved by its employment, 
while great lightness and durability are secured. Its superi- 
ority is especially evident in constructions where great stiff- 
ness is not required, but on the other hand any degree of 



382 Five Black Arts. 

rigidity may be obtained by the employment of a tubular or 
cellular structure, and this may be seen in the construction 
of wrought-iron tubular bridges, beams, and iron ships. 
The material of malleable iron which is making such vast 
changes in the forms of construction, cannot but be interest- 
ing and important, and considering that the present is far 
from the limit of its application, we shall endeavor to give it 
that degree of attention which the importance of the subject 
demands. 

From the forge and the rolling mill we derive two distinct 
qualities of iron, known as '■'■red short " and " cold sJiort." 
The former is the most ductile, and is a tough fibrous mate- 
rial which exhibits considerable strength when cold ; the latter 
is more brittle, and has a highly crystalline fracture almost like 
cast-iron ; but the fact is probably not generally known, that 
the brittle works as well and is as ductile under the hammer 
as the other when at a high temperature. 

Mr. Charles Hood, in a paper read some time ago before 
the Institute of Civil Engineers, went into the subject of the 
change in the internal structure of iron, independently of and 
subsequently to the processes of its manufacture. After ad- 
ducing several instances of tough fibrous malleable iron be- 
coming crystalline and brittle during their employment, he 
attributes these changes to the influence of percussion, heat, 
and magnetism, but questions whether either will produce the 
effect per se. Mr. Hood continues, " The most common ex- 
emplification of the effect of heat in crystallizing fibrous iron 
is by breaking a wrought-iron furnace bar, which, whatever 
quality it was of in the first instance, will in a short time in- 
variably be converted into crystallized iron, and by heating and 
rapidly cooling, by quenching with water a few times any piece 
of wrought-iron, the same effect may be far more speedily pro- 
duced. In these cases we have at least two of the above 
causes in operation — heat and magnetism. In every instance 
of heating iron to a very high temperature, it undergoes a 
change in its electric or magnetic condition ; for at very 
high temperatures iron loses its magnetic powers, which return 
as it gradually cools to a lower temperature. In the case of 
quenching the iron with water, we have a still more decisive 
assistance from the electric and magnetic forces ; for Sir 
Humphrey Davy long since pointed out that all cases of 



Iron — Strength and other Properties. 383 

vaporization produced negative electricity in the bodies in 
contact with the vapor ; a fact ^Yhich has lately excited a 
good deal of attention in consequence of the discovery of 
large quantities of negative electricity in effluent steam." 
Mr. Hood then proceeds to the subject of percussion. " In 
the manufacture of some descriptions of hammered iron, the 
bar is first rolled into shape, and then one-half the length of 
the bar is heated in the furnace, and immediately taken to the 
tilt-hammer and hammered, and the other end of the bar is then 
heated and hammered in the same manner. In order to avoid 
any unevenness in the bar, or any difference in its color where 
the two distinct operations have terminated, the workman fre- 
quently gives the bar a few blows with the hammer upon that 
part which he first operated upon. That part of the bar im- 
mediately becomes crystallized, and so extremely brittle that it 
will break to pieces by merely throwing it on the ground, 
though all the rest of the bar will exhibit the best and toughest 
quality imaginable. This change, therefore, has been pro- 
duced by percussion (as the primary agent) when the bar is 
at a lower temperature than the welding heat. Here it must 
be observed that it is not the excess of hammering which pro- 
duces the effect, but the absence of a sufficient degree of 
heat, at the time that the hammering takes place ; and the 
evil may probably all be produced by four or five blows of 
the hammer if the bar happens to be of a small size. In this 
case we witness the combined effects of percussion, heat, 
and magnetism. When the bar is hammered at the proper 
temperature, no such crystallization takes place, because the 
bar is insensible to magnetism ; but as soon as the bar be- 
comes of that lower degree of temperature at which it can be 
affected by magnetism, the effect of the blows it receives is 
to produce magnetic induction, and that magnetic induction 
and consequent polarity of its particles, when assisted by 
further vibrations from additional percussion, produces a 
crystallized texture." 

The crystallization of perfectly fibrous and ductile wrought- 
iron has long been a subject of dispute, and although we 
agree with most of Mr. Hood's views, we are not altogether 
prepared to admit that the causes assignd are the only ones con- 
cerned in producing the change, or that more than one is neces- 
sary. On the occasion of the accident on the Versailles Railway 



384 Five Black Arts. 

some years since, the whole array of science and practice were 
brought to bear upon the elucidation of the cause. Undoubt- 
edly the broken axle presented a crystalline fracture, but it 
has never been ascertained how far heat and magnetism were 
in operation as in the case of an axle, and more especialy a crank- 
axle, the constant vibration caused by irregularities in the way 
and the weight of the engine appears to be quite sufficient to 
occasion the breakage without aid from the other forces. 
Undoubtedly in almost all cases of the sudden fracture of 
axles or wrought-iron bars, during employment, the fracture 
presents a crystalline structure, but we believe that any 
molecular disturbance, such as impact, can effect this, the 
only question being, how long will the material sustain the 
action before it breaks. This question has been attempted to 
be decided by direct experiment under the direction of the 
Commission on Railway Structures. It was found that with 
cast-iron bars subjected to long continued impacts, " when the 
blow was powerful enough to bend the bars through one-half 
of their ultimate deflection (that is to say, the deflection 
which corresponds to their fracture by dead pressure), no bar 
was able to stand 4000 of such blows in succession. But all 
the bars (when sound) resisted the effects of 4000 blows, each 
bending them through one-third of their ultimate deflection. 
These results were confirmed by experiments with a revolv- 
ing cam which deflected the bars. 

" In wrought-iron bars no very perceptible effect was produced 
by 10,000 successive deflections by means of a revolving 
cam, each deflection being due to half the weight which, 
when applied statically, produced a large permanent flexure." 
These results agree with those obtained by Mr. Fairbairn 
in regard to the effects of time on loaded bars of cast-iron, 
already given. 

Arago and Wollaston have paid considerable attention to 
this subject, the latter having been the first to point out that 
native iron is disposed to break in octohedra and tetrahedra, 
or combinations of these forms. The law which leads to 
fracture in wrought-iron from changes in the molecular struc- 
ture operates with more or less intensity in other bodies ; re- 
peated disturbances, in turn, destroying the cohesive force of 
the material by which they are held together. A French 
writer of eminence, Arago, appears to consider the crystalliza- 



Iron — Strength and other Properties. 385 

tion of wrought-iron to be due to the joint action of time and 
vibration, but we think with Mr. Hood that time and its du- 
ration depends entirely upon the intensity of the disturbing 
forces, and, moreover, that the time of fracture is retarded 
or accelerated in a given ratio to the intensity with which 
these forces are applied. 

From the above statements we may safely deduce the fact, 
that it is essential to the use of this material to consider the 
purposes to which it is applied, the forms to which it may be 
subjected, and the conditions under which it may be placed, 
in order to arrive at just conclusions as to the proportions, in 
order to afford to the structure (whatever that may be) ample 
security in its powers of resistance to strain. 

On the subject of the strength of wrought-iron, we have 
before us the researches of Mr. Fairbairn, in a paper entitled, 
" An Inquiry into the Strength of wrought-iron plates and 
their riveted joints, as applied to Ship-building and Vessels 
exposed to severe strains."* In that communication it is 
shown, from direct experiments, that in plates of rolled iron 
there is no material difference between those torn asunder in the 
direction of the fiber, and those torn asunder across the fiber. 
This uniformity of resistance arises probably from the way in 
which the plates are manufactured, which is generally out of 
flat bars, cut and piled upon each 
other, as at A, one-half transverse- 
ly and the other half longitudinal 
in the line of the pile. From this 
it will be seen that in preparing the bloom or shingle for 
the rollers, the fiber is equally divided, and the only supe- 
riority that can possibly be attained is in the rolling, which 
draws the shingle rather more in the direction of the length 
of the plate than its breadth. 

* Philosophical Transactions, part ii., 1850, p. 677. 



25 



Five Black Arts. 



In the following table we have the results of the experi- 
ments : 



Quality of Plates. 



Mean breaking 

weight in the direc 

tion of the fiber, in 

tons per sc[uare 

inch. 



Mean breaking 

weight across the 

fiber, in tons per 

square inch. 



Yorkshire plates 

Yorkshire plates 

Derbyshire plates 

Shropshire plates , 

Staffordshire plates 

Mean 




27.490 
26.037 
18.650 
22.000 
21.010 



22.519 



Or as 22.5, 23.0, equal to about ^\ in favor of those torn 
across the fiber. 

From the above it is satisfactory to know, so far as regards 
uniformity in the strength of plates, that the liability to rup- 
ture is as great when drawn in one direction as in the other ; 
and it is not improbable, that the same properties would be ex- 
hibited, and the same -resistance maintained, if the plates 
were drawn in any particular direction obliquely across the 
fibrous or laminated structure. 

From the same author we select the results of a series of 

experiments on the tensile strength of S C \^^ bars of dif- 
ferent lengths, and about If in diameter. The following 
table gives the strains required for each of four succesive 
breakages of the same pieces of iron. These experiments 
are highly interesting, as they not only confirm those made 
upon plates, but they indicate a progressive increase of. . 
strength, notwithstanding the elongation and the reduced sec- 
tional area of the bars. These facts are of considerable value, 
as they distinctly show that a severe tensile strain is not serious- 
ly injurious to the bearing powers of wrought-iron, even when 
carried to the extent of or increased four times repeated, as 
was done in these experiments. In practice it may not be 
prudent to test bars and chains to their utmost limit of resist- 
ance ; it is nevertheless satisfactory to know that in cases of 
emergency those limits may be approached without incurring 
serious risk of injury to the ultimate strength of the material. 



Iron — Strength and other Properties. 387 
The following abstract gives the results of the experiments : 



Length between the nippers. 


Breaking Strain in tons. 


Mean Elongation in inches. 


Inches. 






120 


32-21 


2G-0 


42 


32-125 


9-8 


36 


32-35 


8-8 


24 


32-00 


G-2 


10 


32-29 


4-2 



" As all these experiments were made upon the same de- 
scription of iron, it may be fairly inferred that the length of 
a bar does not in any way affect its strength." 



Seduction of the above Table. 



Length of bar. 


Elongation. 


Elongation per unit of length. 


Inches. 






120 


260 


•216 


42 


9-8 


•233 


36 


8-8 


•244 


24 


6-2 


-258 


10 


4-2 


•420 



" Here it appears that the rate of elongation of bars of 
wrought-iron increases with the decrease of their length ; 
thus while a bar of 120 inches had an elongation of •216 
inch per unit of its length, a bar of ten inches has an elon- 
gation of "42 inch per unit of its length, or nearly double 
what itis in the former case. The relation between the length 
of and its maximum elongation per unit, may be approximately 
expressed by the following formula, viz. : 

— +r 

where L represents the length of the bar, and I the elonga- 
tion per unit of the length of the bar." 

The above results are not without value, as they exhibit 
the ductility of wrought-iron at a low temperature, as also, the 
greatly increased strength it exhibits with a reduced sectional 
area under severe strain. 

On the transverse strength of wrought-iron it will not be 
necessary to enlarge, as we have numerous examples before 



388 Five Black Arts. 

us in the experiments undertaken to determine the strength and 
form of the Britannia and Conway Tubular Bridges.* In 
these experiments will be found an entirely new description 
and form of construction, which have emanated from them, 
and which have led to a new era in the history of bridges, 
and the application of wrought-iron to other purposes besides 
those in connection with buildings, and its greatly extended 
application to the useful arts. For further information on 
this subject we refer the reader to Mr. Fairbairn's f and Pro- 
fessor Hodgldnson's works, in both of which will be found 
data sufficient to establish the great superiority of malleable 
over cast-iron, or any other material, either as regards strength 
or economy in its application. 

On the resistance of wrought-iron plates to a force tend- 
ing to burst them, Rondelet has shown that it requires a force 
of 70,000 lbs. per square inch to produce fracture, and Mr. 
Fairbairn's experiments proved that a wrought-iron plate of 
one-quarter of an inch thick resisted a pressure from a ball 
3 inches in diameter, equal to that required to rupture a 3 
inch oak plank. 

At the request of the British Association, Dr. Thomson of 
Glasgow examined the chemical constitution of hot-blast iron, 
and he gives the following as the result of his inquiry : 

" (1.) The specific gravity of hot-blast iron is greater than that of cold- 
blast. 

" The following is the specific gravities of eight specimens of cold-blast 
iron. 



1st. Muirkirk 6-410 

2d. Do 6-435 

3d. Do 6-493 

4th. Do 6-579 



5th. Muirkirk 6-775 

6th. From Pyrites 6-9444 

7th. From Carron 6-9888 

8th. Clyde Iron-Works 7-0028 

" The specific gravity of the Muirkirk iron is considerably less than of 
that smelted at Carron and the Clyde Iron- Works ; the mean of the eight 
specimens is 6.7034. 

" It has been hitherto supposed that the difference between cast-iron and 
malleable iron consists in the presence of carbon in the former, and its 
absence from the latter ; in other words, that cast-iron is a carburet of iron . 
But in all the specimens of cast-iron which we analyzed we constantly 
found several other ingredients besides iron and carbon. Manganese is 
pretty generally present in minute quantity, though in one specimen it 
araoanted to no less a quantity than 7 per cent. ; its average amount is 2 
per cent. Silicon is never wanting, though its amount is exceedingly 

* See Mr. Fairbairn's and Mr. Edwin Clark's work on the Conway and Britannia 
Tubular Bridges. 

t " On the application of cast and wrought-iron to building purposes," and " Useful 
information for Engineers." 



Ikon — Strength and other Properties. 389 

variable, the average quantity is 1| per cent. ; some ppecimens contained 
3^ per cent, of it, wiiile others contained less than a half per cent. Alumi- 
num is very rarely altogether absent, though its amount is more variable 
than that of silicon. Its average amount is 2 per cent. ; sometimes it ex- 
ceeds 4 J per cent., and sometimes it is not quite l-5000th part of the weight 
of the iron. 

" Calcium and magnesium are sometimes present, but very rarely, and 
the quantity does not exceed 1-5 th per cent. In a specimen of cast-iron 
which I got from Mr. Neilson, and which he had smelted from pyrites, there 
was a trace of copper, showing that the pyrites employed was not quite 
free from copper ; and in a specimen from the Clyde Iron-Works there was 
a trace of sulphur. The following table exhibits the composition of six 
different specimens of cast-iron, No. 1, analyzed in my laboratory, either by 
myself or by Mr. John Tennent. 



Iron 

Copper . . . 
Manganese 
Sulphur . . 
Carbon . . . 

Silica 

Aluminum 
Calcium . . 
Magnesium, 



Mnirkirk 


Muirkirk. 


Muirkirk. 


Pyrites. 


Carron 


Clyde. 


90-98 


90-29 


91-38 


89-442 
0-288 


94-010 


90-824 


•• 


7-14 


2-00 




0-626 


2-458 
0-045 


7'40 


1-706 


4-88 


3-600 


3-086 


2-458 


0-46 


0-830 


1-10 


3-220 


1-006 


0-450 


0-48 


0-016 
0-018 


6-20 


3-77G 


1-032 


4-602 
0-340 



91-154 

2-037 

3-855 
1-177 
1-651 



" The constant constituents ot cold-blast cast-iron, No. 1, are iron, man- 
ganese, carbon, silicon, and aluminum. The occasional constituents are 
copper, sulphur, calcium, and magnesium. These occur so rarely, and in 
such minute quantity, that we may ovei'l ook them altogether. 

" The constant constituents occur in the following mean atomic propor- 
tions : 

22 atoms iron = 77-00 

J atom manganese = 1-75 

4-36 atoms carbon = 3-27 

1 atom silicon = 1-00 

1^ aluminum = 1-40—84-42 

" (2.) I examined only one specimen of cast-iron, No. 2. It was an old 
specimen, said to have come from Sweden, but I have no evidence of the 
correctness of this statement. Its specific gravity was 7-1633 higher than 
any specimens of cold-blast iron, No. 1. Its constituents were : 

Iron -. 93-594 

Manganese 0-708 

Carbon 3-080 

Silicon 1-262 

Aluminum 0-732 

Sulphur 0-038—99-414 

" The presence of sulphur in this specimen leads to the suspicion that it 
is not a Swedish specimen ; for as the Swedish ore is magnetic iron, and the 
fuel charcoal, the presence of sulphur in the iron is very unlikely.* 

* I have been told by Mr. Musbet tbat ibe Swedes add sulpbur to tbeir iron No. 2 



890 



Five Black Arts. 



" In this specimen, the atoms of iron and manganese are to those of 
carbon, silicon, and aluminum, in the proportion of 4| to one, instead of 
3 J to one, as in cast-iron No. 1. 

" The atoms of carbon, silicon, and aluminum, approach the proportions 
of 7, 2, and 1, so that in cast-iron, No. 2, judging from one specimen, there 
is a greater proportion of carbon, compared with the silicon and aluminum, 
than in cast-iron No. 1. 

" Mr. Tennent analyzed a specimen of hot-blast iron. No. 2, from Gart- 
s'aerry. Its specific gravity was 6-9156, and its constituents. 



Iron 90-542 

Manganese 2-764 

Carbon 3-094 

Silicon 0-680 

Aluminum 2-894 

Sulphur 0-023 



99.997 



Atoms. 
25-86 ) 0.7 
0-78 f^^ 
405 i 
0.68 !,. 
2-31 \^ 
0-011 J 



So that it resembles cast-iron, No. 1, in the proportion of its constituents. 
The carbon is almost the same as in cold-blast iron, No. 2, but the propor- 
tion of aluminum is four times as great, while the silicon is little more than 
half as much. The atomic ratios are, carbon, 4- ; silicon, 0-67 ; aluminum, 
228. 

"(3.) Five specimens of hot-blast cast-iron. No. 1, were analyzed. Two 
of these were from Carron, and three from the Clyde Iron-Works, where 
the hot-blast originally began ; and where, of course, it has been longest 
in use. The specific gravity of these specimens was found to be as follows : 

1st. From Clyde Works 7-0028 

2d. From Carron 7-0721 

3d. From Carron 7-0721 

4th. From Clyde Works 7-1022 



Mean 



7-0623 



" It appears from this, that the hot-blast increases the specific gravity of 
cast-iron by about l-22d part. It approaches nearer the specific gravity of 
cast-iron, No. 2, smelted by cold air, than to that of No. 1. 

The following table exhibits the constituents of these four specimens : 





Clyde., 


Carron. 


Carron. 


Clyde. 


Clyde. 


Iron 


97-096 
0-332 
2-460 
0-280 
0-385 


95-422 
0-336 
2-400 
1-820 
0-488 


96-09 
0-41 
2-48 
1-49 
0-26 


94-966 
0-160 
1-560 
1-322 
1-374 
0-792 


94-345 


Manganese 


3120 




1-416 


Silicon 


0-520 


Aluminum 


0-599 












100-55 


100-466 


100-73 


100-174 


100- 



Iron — Statistics. 391 

The mean of these analyses gives us, 

Atoms, 

6-5 



Atoms, 

Iron 95-584 or 27-31 

Manganese 0-871 or 0-249 

Carbon 2-099 or 2-79 

Silicon 1-086 or 1-086^ 1- 

Aluminum 0-422 or 0-337 



101.: 



! 



Or, in the proportion of 6| atoms of iron and manganese to 1 atom of 
carbon, silicon, and aluminum. In the cold-blast cast-iron we have. 

Iron. Carbon, etc. 

In No. 1 3i atoms 1 atom. 

In No. 2 4i 1 « 

In hot-blast 6^ 1 " 

" Thus it appears, that when iron is smelted by the hot-blast its specific 
gravity is increased, and it contains a greater proportion of iron, and a 
smaller proportion of carbon, silicon, and aluminum, than when smelted 
by the cold-blast." 



THE STATISTICS OF THE IRON TRADE. 

This article has already extended so much beyond the limits 
of our inquiry, that we must confine ourselves to an exceed- 
ingly brief notice of the statistics of this important manufac- 
ture. In 1740 the iron trade suffered a sudden check from 
a falling off in the supply of charcoal, coal or coke not having 
been employed at that time for smelting. The annual pro- 
duction seems to have decreased from 180,000 to about 
17,350 tons per annum. 

Furnaces . 59 

Tons 17,350 

Tons. cwt. qrs. 

Annual average for each furnace 294 1 1 

Weekly do. do , 5 13 

Soon afterward the difficulties in the way of using coal 
were overcome, and the manufacture extended rapidly. The 
number of charcoal furnaces decreased, but the quantity pro- 
duced by each was considerably increased. The following 
table shows the state of the trade in 1788 compared with 
1740 : 



392 



Five Black Arts. 



Total quantity of charcoal iron, in Britain, in 1788 14,500 

Do. coke do. do 53,800 

Total quantity of iron, in Britain, in 1788 68,300 

Do. do. 1740 17,350 

Increased produce of pig iron 50,950 

About the year 1796 it was contemplated by Mr. Pitt to 
add to the revenue by a tax on coal. This met with a pow- 
erful opposition on the part of the manufacturers and con- 
sumers, especially those in the iron trade. A committee was 
appointed, witnesses were examined, and the measure aban- 
doned as unwise and impracticable. 

The following table shows the comparative make of pig 
iron in 1820 and 1827 : 

1820. 

Tons 400,000 

Furnaces 284 

1827. 
Tons 690,500 

From that time to the present the manufacture has steadily 
increased. The following table gives the state of the trade 
in Great Britain in 1854 : 

No. of Works 228 

No. of Furnaces erected 724 

No. of Furnaces in blast 555 

Total produce in tons 3,069,874 

In connection with the above, we insert the following table 
from Mr. Kenyon Blackwell's paper on the Iron Industry of 
Great Britain, read before the Society of Arts. It gives the 
estimated production of crude iron in the various countries. 



Great Britain 

France 

United States 

Prussia 

Austria 

Belgium 

Russia 



Tons. 
3,000,000 
750,000 
750,000 
300,000 
250.000 
200,000 
200,000 



Tons. 
150,000 



Sweden 

Various German 

States. 
Other Countries .', . , 300,000 



100,000 



6,000.000 



31^77-7 



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